beef

• 牛肉

　 　 　

WordNet

1. cattle that are reared for their meat (同)beef_cattle
2. meat from an adult domestic bovine (同)boeuf
3. tree or tall shrub with shiny leaves and umbels of fragrant creamy-white flowers; yields hard heavy reddish wood (同)beefwood, Stenocarpus salignus
4. beef that has been ground (同)hamburger
5. dressed half of a beef carcass
6. a stew made with beef
7. to remain unmolested, undisturbed, or uninterrupted -- used only in infinitive form; "let her be"
8. work in a specific place, with a specific subject, or in a specific function; "He is a herpetologist"; "She is our resident philosopher" (同)follow
9. have life, be alive; "Our great leader is no more"; "My grandfather lived until the end of war" (同)live
10. be identical to; be someone or something; "The president of the company is John Smith"; "This is my house"
11. happen, occur, take place; "I lost my wallet; this was during the visit to my parents house"; "There were two hundred people at his funeral"; "There was a lot of noise in the kitchen"
12. have the quality of being; (copula, used with an adjective or a predicate noun); "John is rich"; "This is not a good answer"
13. occupy a certain position or area; be somewhere; "Where is my umbrella?" "The toolshed is in the back"; "What is behind this behavior?"
14. spend or use time; "I may be an hour"
15. any of numerous hairy-bodied insects including social and solitary species
16. a social gathering to carry out some communal task or to hold competitions

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 〈U〉『牛肉』;(一般に)肉 / 〈C〉《おもに米》肉牛,食肉牛;(屠殺(とさつ)して処理した)牛 / 〈U〉《話》筋肉,力;体重,肉づき / 〈C〉《俗》不平,苦情 / (人に…について)不平をこぼす,ぶつぶつ言う《+『at』+『名』〈人〉+『about』+『名』》 / …を強化する,補強する
2. 《連結語として補語を伴なって…『である』,…だ,…です / 《位置・場所を表す語句を伴って》(…に)『ある』,いる(occupy a place or situation) / 〈物事が〉『存在する』,ある(exist);〈生物が〉生存する,生きている(live) / 行われる,起こる,発生する(take place, occur) / 存続する,そのままでいる(remain as before) / 《『be to』 do》 / …する予定である,…することになっている / …すべきだ / 《受動態の不定詞を伴って》…できる / 《命令》…するのだ / 《条件節に》…する意図がある / 《『if…were to』 do》…するとしたなら / 《『be』 do『ing』》《進行形》 / 《進行中の動作》…している,しつつある / 《近い未来》…しようとしている,するつもり / 《動作の反復》(いつも)…している / 《『be』+『他動詞の過去分詞』》《受動態》…される,されている / 《『be』+『自動詞の過去分詞』》《完了形》…した[状態にある]
3. 『はち』,(特に)みつばち(honeybee) / 《米話》(趣味・仕事上の)集会,集い / (親善のための)競技会 / 働き者

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/06/15 07:54:35」(JST)

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For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation).

An uncooked rib roast

Beef is the meat of cattle, such as Glan Cattle.

Beef is the culinary name for meat from bovines, especially cattle. Beef can be harvested from cows, bulls, heifers or steers. Acceptability as a food source varies in different parts of the world.

Beef muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak (filet mignon, sirloin steak, rump steak, rib steak, rib eye steak, hanger steak, etc.). Some cuts are processed (corned beef or beef jerky), and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in some varieties of blood sausage. Other parts that are eaten include the oxtail, liver, tongue, tripe from the reticulum or rumen, glands (particularly the pancreas and thymus, referred to as sweetbread), the heart, the brain (although forbidden where there is a danger of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE), the kidneys, and the tender testicles of the bull (known in the US as calf fries, prairie oysters, or Rocky Mountain oysters). Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock.

Beef from steers and heifers is very similar, (all treatments being equal), except steers have slightly more marbling and fat. Depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older cows and bulls is usually tougher, so it is frequently used for mince (UK)/ground beef (US). Cattle raised for beef may be allowed to roam free on grasslands, or may be confined at some stage in pens as part of a large feeding operation called a feedlot (or concentrated animal feeding operation), where they are usually fed a ration of grain, protein, roughage and a vitamin/mineral preblend.

Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. In absolute numbers, the United States, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China are the world's three largest consumers of beef. On a per capita basis in 2009, Argentines ate the most beef at 64.6 kg per person; people in the US ate 40.2 kg, while those in the EU ate 16.9 kg.

The world's largest exporters of beef are Brazil, India, Australia and the United States in that order (in 2014). Beef production is also important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus and Nicaragua.

Etymology

The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow, which is from Middle English "cou" (both words have the same Indo-European root *gʷou-). After the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal (such as nēat, or cu for adult females) by the peasants, but the meat was called boef (ox) (Modern French bœuf) by the French nobles —who did not often deal with the live animal— when it was served to them.

This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largely Germanic origins) and their meat (with Romanic origins) that is also found in such English word-pairs as pig/pork, sheep/mutton and chicken/poultry.

Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus.

History

People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times; some of the earliest known cave paintings, such as those of Lascaux show aurochs in hunting scenes. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide ready access to beef, milk, and leather. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids. Examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent.

It is unknown exactly when people started cooking beef. Cattle were widely used across the Old World as draft animals (oxen), for milk, or specifically for meat. With mechanization of farming, some breeds were specifically bred to increase meat yield, resulting in Chianina and Charolais, or to improve texture, as the Murray Grey, Angus or Wagyū. Some breeds have been selected for both meat and milk production, e.g. Brown Swiss (Braunvieh).

In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Beginning with the acquisition of grasslands through the Mexican–American War of 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region, the livestock industry started with the taming of wild longhorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets.

Farming of beef cattle

Beef cattle are raised and fed using a variety of methods including feedlots, free range, ranching and backgrounding.

Cuts

Main article: Cut of beef

Beef is first divided into primal cuts, pieces of meat initially separated from the carcass during butchering. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterise cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from hoof and horn increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; e.g., the cut described as "brisket" in the US is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.

Special beef designations

Beef rump steak on grill pan, cooked to medium rare

• Certified Angus Beef (CAB) in Canada and the USA is a specification-based, branded-beef program which was founded in 1978 by Angus cattle producers to increase demand for their breed of cattle, by promoting the impression that Angus cattle have consistent, high-quality beef with superior taste. The brand is owned by the American Angus Association and its 35,000 rancher members. The terms Angus Beef or Black Angus Beef are loosely and commonly misused and/or confused with CAB; this is especially common in the food service industry. The brand or name Certified Angus Beef cannot be legally used by an establishment that is not licensed to do so. In the UK the equivalent is Aberdeen Angus, marketed as higher quality and associated with stricter animal welfare rules. Notable for the herd being free of BSE during the BSE epidemic in the UK. Similar schemes are used elsewhere as in Certified Angus Beef in Ireland.
• Certified Hereford Beef is beef certified to have come from Hereford cattle.
• Grass-fed beef cattle have been raised exclusively on forage. Grain-fed beef cattle are raised primarily on forage, but are "finished" in a feedlot.
• Kobe beef is pure Tajima-gyu breed bull or virgin cow, that was born, raised, and slaughtered solely within the Hyogo prefecture. Very limited amounts of Kobe are exported.
• Halal beef has been certified to have been processed in a prescribed manner in accordance with Muslim dietary laws.
• Kosher beef has been certified to have been processed in a prescribed manner in accordance with Jewish dietary laws.
• Organic beef is produced without added hormones, pesticides, or other chemicals, though requirements for labeling it organic vary widely.
• The EU recognises the following Protected Designation of Origin beef brands:

Spain – Carne de Ávila, Carne de Cantabria, Carne de la Sierra de Guadarrama, Carne de Morucha de Salamanca, Carne de Vacuno del País o Euskal Okela, Ternera Galega

France – Taureau de Camargue, Boeuf charolais du Bourbonnais, Boeuf de Chalosse, Boeuf du Maine

Portugal – Carne Alentejana, Carne Arouquesa, Carne Barrosã, Carne Cachena da Peneda, Carne da Charneca, Carne de Bovino Cruzado dos Lameiros do Barroso, Carne dos Açores, Carne Marinhoa, Carne Maronesa, Carne Mertolenga, Carne Mirandesa

United Kingdom – Orkney Beef, Scotch Beef, Welsh Beef

Belgium – Belgian Blue

USDA beef grades

See also: Food grading

Inspected carcasses tagged by the USDA

In the United States, the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) operates a voluntary beef grading program. The meat processor pays for a trained AMS meat grader to grade whole carcasses at the abattoir. Users are required to comply with Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) grade labeling procedures. The official USDA grade designation can appear in one or any combination of the following ways: container markings, individual bags, legible roller brand appearing on the meat itself, or by a USDA shield stamp that incorporates the quality and/or yield grade.

There are eight beef quality grades. The grades are based on two main criteria: the degree of marbling (intramuscular fat) in the beef, and the maturity (estimated age of the animal at slaughter). Some meat scientists object to the current scheme of USDA grading since it is not based on direct measurement of tenderness, although marbling and maturity are indicators of tenderness. Most other countries' beef grading systems mirror the US model, except for those in the European Union (EU). The EU employs a grading scheme that emphasizes carcass shape and amount of fat covering instead of marbling and aging. The differences in grading yield incompatible value judgments of beef value in the USA and the EU. Most beef offered for sale in supermarkets in the US is graded US Choice or Select. US Prime beef is sold to hotels and upscale restaurants, and usually marketed as such.

• U.S. Prime – Highest in quality and intramuscular fat, limited supply. Currently, about 2.9% of carcasses grade as Prime.
• U.S. Choice – High quality, widely available in foodservice industry and retail markets. Choice carcasses are 53.7% of the fed cattle total. The difference between Choice and Prime is largely due to the fat content in the beef. Prime typically has a higher fat content (more and well distributed intramuscular "marbling") than Choice.
• U.S. Select (formerly Good) – lowest grade commonly sold at retail, acceptable quality, but is less juicy and tender due to leanness.
• U.S. Standard – Lower quality, yet economical, lacking marbling.
• U.S. Commercial – Low quality, lacking tenderness, produced from older animals.
• U.S. Utility
• U.S. Cutter
• U.S. Canner

Utility, Cutter, and Canner grade are rarely used in foodservice operations and primarily used by processors and canners.

Beef grading service began in 1917 as a way to determine both the quality and the quantity of beef that would come from each carcass. Stamping the grades began in May 1927. Each carcass can be stamped with a yield or quality stamp, or a combination of both. The standards have been revised many times since the original standards were formulated. A few notable changes include combining Prime and choice grades into Prime, and changing the Good grade to choice, this change occurred in 1950. In 1980 conditions were set forth to establish guidance on grading protocol. This included a 10-minute bloom time before the grader evaluates the carcass. Most beef plants will allow a longer time for bloom depending on the speed of the grading chain.

In 1997, the official standards were revised to restrict the Select grade to A maturity carcasses, and to raise the minimum marbling score to qualify for Choice to modest for B maturity cattle. These changes were implemented to improve the uniformity and consistency of the grading system. Yield grades are intended to estimate the pounds of boneless closely trimmed retail cuts from the carcass. Closely trimmed refers to approximately ¼ inch of external fat. Yield grade is determined by considering 4 carcass characteristics: external fat, Kidney, pelvic and heart fat (KPH), Ribeye area (REA), and Hot carcass weight (HCW). The amount of external fat is measured at the ribbed surface between the 12th and 13th ribs. The ribbing of carcasses is described in the US standards for beef grading. External fat is measured at a distance of ¾ the length of the ribeye from the chine bone end. This initial number can be adjusted up or down depending on any abnormal fat deposits. As the amount of external fat increases, the percent of retail cuts decreases.

Kidney fat is assessed subjectively and is expressed as a percentage of the carcass weight. As the percentage of KPH increases, the percent of retail cuts decreases. The ribeye area is measured at the ribbed surface, it can be estimated subjectively or measured with a device approved by the AMS. As ribeye area increase, percent retail cuts increases. Hot carcass weight is used to determine yield grade. As carcass weight increases, percent retail cuts decrease. The following equation is used to determine yield grade:

${\text{YG} = 2.5 + \left(2.5 \times \text{adjusted fat thickness}\right) + \left(0.2 \times \text{percent KPH}\right) + \left(0.0038 \times \text{HCW}\right) - \left(0.32 \times \text{REA}\right)}$

There are five grades, 1-5. Yield grade one carcasses are of the highest cutability, while yield grade 5 yields the lowest cutability.

Beef sold in US restaurants and supermarkets is usually described by its USDA grade; however, in the early twenty-first century many restaurants and retailers began selling beef on the strength of brand names and the reputation of a specific breed of cattle, such as black Angus.

Aging and tenderization

Main article: Beef aging

Further information: Meat#Conditioning, Meat preservation

To improve tenderness of beef, it often is aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous proteolytic enzymes to weaken structural and myofibrillar proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.

Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.

Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes (papain, bromelin or ficin) can be injected to augment the endogenous enzymes. Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.

Cooking and preparation

These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.

Dry heat

Roast beef cooked under high heat

Method	Description
Grilling	is cooking the beef over or under a high radiant heat source, generally in excess of 650 °F (343 °C). This leads to searing of the surface of the beef, which creates a flavorsome crust. In Australia, New Zealand, the US, Canada, the UK, Germany and The Netherlands, grilling, particularly over charcoal, is sometimes known as barbecuing, often shortened to "BBQ". When cooked over charcoal, this method can also be called charbroiling.
Barbecue	refers to a technique of cooking that involves cooking meat for long periods of time at low temperatures with smoke from a wood fire.
Broiling	is a term used in North America. It is similar to grilling, but with the heat source always above the meat. Elsewhere this is considered a way of grilling.
Griddle	Meat may be cooked on a hot metal griddle. A little oil or fat may be added to inhibit sticking; the dividing line when the method becomes shallow frying is not well-defined.
Roasting	is a way of cooking meat in a hot oven, producing roast beef. Liquid is not usually added; the beef may be basted by fat on the top, or by spooning hot fat from the oven pan over the top. A gravy may be made from the cooking juices, after skimming off excess fat. Roasting is suitable for thicker pieces of meat; the other methods listed are usually for steaks and similar cuts.

Internal temperature

Main article: Temperature (meat)

Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a meat thermometer. Beef can be cooked using the sous-vide method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as broiling or roasting it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.

Frying

Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by shallow frying, although deep frying may be used, often for meat enrobed with breadcrumbs as in milanesas. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in stir frying, typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot wok. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.

Moist heat

Moist heat cooking methods include braising, pot roasting, stewing and sous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.

• Stewing or simmering

simmering meat, whole or cut into bite-size pieces, in a water-based liquid with flavorings. This technique may be used as part of pressure cooking.

• Braising

cooking meats, in a covered container, with small amounts of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, braised meat is not fully immersed in liquid, and usually is browned before the oven step.

• Sous-vide

Sous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.

Beef roasted with vinegar and sliced with spiced paste, often called "cold beef".

Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just simmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since thermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, 52 °C (126 °F) (sous-vide) to 90 °C (194 °F) (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough collagen in connective tissue into gelatin through hydrolysis, with minimal toughening.

With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, pathogens, such as bacteria will be killed, and Pasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo searing in a very hot pan, grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).

Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that Pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)

Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In hot pot cooking, such as shabu-shabu, very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In fondue bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful sauces to complement the meat.

Raw beef

Sliced beef

Steak tartare is a French dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.

The Belgian or Dutch dish filet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. Kibbeh nayyeh is a similar Lebanese dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called tire siga or kitfo is eaten (upon availability).

Carpaccio of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.

Yukhoe is a variety of hoe, raw dishes in Korean cuisine which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for yukhoe is tender rump steak. For the seasoning, soy sauce, sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of bae (Korean pear) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.

Cured, smoked, and dried beef

Bresaola is an air-dried, salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in Valtellina, a valley in the Alps of northern Italy's Lombardy region. Bündnerfleisch is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. Chipped beef is an American industrially-produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."

Beef jerky is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.

Biltong is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.

Pastrami is often made from beef; raw beef is salted, then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and smoked.

Beef curry in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Corned beef is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned brine. The corn in corned beef refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term corned beef can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered delicatessen fare.

Spiced beef is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at Christmas in Ireland. It is a form of salt beef, cured with spices and saltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled in Guinness or a similar stout, and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for pickled beef. Sauerbraten is a German variant.

Religious prohibitions

Main article: Cattle in religion

A pamphlet protesting against the Muslim practice of beef-eating. The demon (far right) attempts to slaughter the sacred cow, represented by "the mother of cows" Kamadhenu in whose body all Hindu deities are believed to reside. The colour version ran by the Ravi Varma Press (c. 1912).

Most Hindus consider killing cattle and eating beef a sin. Bovines have been highly revered as sacred to mankind in Indian culture due to the critical role of cattle, especially cows, as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance to the pastoral Vedic people allowed this special status; and this rose to prominence with the advent of the Jain tradition and Hindu Golden-age during the Gupta period. The slaughter of cattle has been likened to the matricide in these cultures, due to the idealisation of the cow providing milk and sustenance for society. Cow's milk is again used as curd, butter, cheese, milk sweets and a wide range of other items.

During the season of Lent, Orthodox Christians give up all meat and poultry (as well as dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant Jews and Muslims may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws.

Legal prohibition

India

Main article: Cattle slaughter in India

Several states of India imposes various types of prohibition on beef. Maharashtra bans any form of selling and consumption of beef. Maharashtra Animal Preservation Act passed in 1976 prohibits slaughtering cows, which was amended in 1995 to include bulls and bullocks. Violation of this act is punishable with up to five years imprisonment and ₹10000 (US$160) fine. In 2015 this law was signed into law by presidential assent. Gujarat passed the Animal Preservation Act in October 2011 that prohibits killing of cows along with buying, selling and transport of beef. Orissa and Andhra Pradesh states allow butchering of cattle other than cows if the animal carries a "fit-for-slaughter" certificate. However, in West Bengal, Kerala, Goa, etc. consumption of beef is not deemed an offence. Many people of Kerala and Goa consume beef. Most of the exported "beef" from India is water buffalo meat; water buffalo are not usually considered holy in Hinduism.

Nutrition and health

Ground Beef 15% fat, broiled

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,047 kJ (250 kcal)
Carbohydrates	0 g
Starch	0 g
Dietary fiber	0 g
Fat	15 g
Saturated	5.887 g
Monounsaturated	6.662 g
Polyunsaturated	0.485 g
Protein	26 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)	(4%) 0.046 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	(15%) 0.176 mg
Niacin (B3)	(36%) 5.378 mg
Vitamin B6	(29%) 0.383 mg
Folate (B9)	(2%) 9 μg
Vitamin B12	(110%) 2.64 μg
Choline	(17%) 82.4 mg
Vitamin D	(1%) 7 IU
Vitamin E	(3%) 0.45 mg
Vitamin K	(1%) 1.2 μg
Trace metals
Calcium	(2%) 18 mg
Iron	(20%) 2.6 mg
Magnesium	(6%) 21 mg
Manganese	(1%) 0.012 mg
Phosphorus	(28%) 198 mg
Potassium	(7%) 318 mg
Sodium	(5%) 72 mg
Zinc	(66%) 6.31 mg
Other constituents
Water	58 g
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Beef is an excellent source of complete protein and minerals such as zinc, selenium, phosphorus and iron, and B vitamins. Red meat is the most significant dietary source of carnitine and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of creatine. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.

Health concerns

See also: Red meat § Human health

Cancer

Consumption of red meat is known to increase the risk of bowel cancer and is suspected to be implicated in an increased risk of lung cancer and some other cancers.Xue XJ, Gao Q, Qiao JH, Zhang J, Xu CP, Liu J (2014). "Red and processed meat consumption and the risk of lung cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 33 published studies". Int J Clin Exp Med (Meta-analysis) 7 (6): 1542–53. PMC 4100964. PMID 25035778. 

Cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease

The Harvard School of Public Health recommends consumers eat red meat sparingly as it has high levels of undesirable saturated fat. This recommendation is not without controversy, though. Another study from The Harvard School of Public Health appearing in Circulation (journal) found "Consumption of processed meats, but not red meats, is associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease and diabetes mellitus."

This finding tended to confirm an earlier meta-analysis of the nutritional effects of saturated fat in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition which found "[P]rospective epidemiologic studies showed that there is no significant evidence for concluding that dietary saturated fat is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease or cardiovascular disease. More data are needed to elucidate whether cardiovascular disease risks are likely to be influenced by the specific nutrients used to replace saturated fat."

Dioxins

Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with sewage sludge. Elevated dioxins may be present in meat from these cattle.

Recalls

Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination:

• January 2011, One Great Burger expands recall.
• February 2011, American Food Service, a Pico Rivera, Calif. establishment, is recalling approximately 3,170 pounds of fresh ground beef patties and other bulk packages of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7
• March 2011, 14,000 pounds of beef recalled by Creekstone Farms Premium Beef due to E. coli concerns.
• April 2011, National Beef Packaging recalled more than 60,000 of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.
• May 2011, Irish Hills Meat Company of Michigan, a Tipton, Mich., establishment is recalling approximately 900 pounds of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.
• September 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 131,100 pounds of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.
• December 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 40,000 pounds of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.
• January 2012, Hannaford Supermarkets recalled all ground beef with sell by dates 17 December 2011 or earlier.
• September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with E. coli 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.

Mad cow disease

Main article: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

In 1984, the use of meat and bone meal in cattle feed resulted in the world's first outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or, colloquially, mad cow disease) in the United Kingdom.

Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE:

• In May 2003, after a cow with BSE was discovered in Alberta, Canada, the American border was closed to live Canadian cattle, but was reopened in early 2005.
• In June 2005 Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the United States Department of Agriculture animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in Texas. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information." The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when Oprah Winfrey raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.

In 2010, more than 20 years after the disease emerged, the EU tentatively decided to relax a ban on feeding meat to animals, introduced to prevent the transmission of BSE by that route.

World producers

Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries

Beef production (1000 Metric Tons CWE)

Rank	Country	2009	2010	%Chg
1	United States	11,889	11,789	−0.8%
2	Brazil	8,935	9,300	4%
3	EU-27	7,970	7,920	−0.6%
4	China	5,764	5,550	−4%
5	Argentina	3,400	2,800	−18%
6	India	2,610	2,760	6%
7	Australia	2,100	2,075	−1%
8	Mexico	1,700	1,735	2%
9	Russia	1,285	1,260	−2%
10	Pakistan	1,226	1,250	2%

National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head)

Rank	Country	2009	2010	%Chg
1	India	57,960	58,300	0.6%
2	Brazil	49,150	49,400	0.5%
3	China	42,572	41,000	−4%
4	United States	35,819	35,300	−1.4%
5	EU-27	30,400	30,150	−0.8%
6	Argentina	12,300	13,200	7%
7	Australia	9,213	10,158	10%
8	Russia	7,010	6,970	−0.6%
9	Mexico	6,775	6,797	0.3%
10	Colombia	5,675	5,675	0.0%

See also

• Argentine beef
• Beef hormone controversy
• Entrecôte
• List of beef dishes
• List of meat animals
• Pink slime

References

External links

• Beef at Wikibook Cookbooks
• USDA beef grading standards (PDF)
• Top beef producing countries
• Nutrition Facts for Various Cuts of Beef
• Many different meat cut charts
• The Story of Beef in Nebraska, the Beef State with videos, history, life cycle, issues, and culture
• Beef State Documentary produced by Nebraska Educational Telecommunications

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• Dahimi O1, Rahim AA2, Abdulkarim SM3, Hassan MS1, Hashari SB1, Mashitoh AS1, Saadi S4.
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• Bravo D1, de Alba M1, Medina M2.
• Food microbiology.Food Microbiol.2014 Aug;41:27-32. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2014.01.010. Epub 2014 Jan 25.
• The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatments in combination with the lactoperoxidase system (LPOS) or activated lactoferrin (ALF) on Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis and Escherichia coli O157:H7 was investigated in cured beef carpaccio store
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• Pesavento G1, Calonico C2, Ducci B3, Magnanini A4, Lo Nostro A5.
• Food microbiology.Food Microbiol.2014 Aug;41:1-7. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2014.01.008. Epub 2014 Jan 22.
• Food specimens were analyzed in order to research Enterococcus spp.: 636 samples of raw meat (227 beef, 238 poultry, and 171 pork), 278 samples of cheese (110 fresh soft cheese and 168 mozzarella cheese), 214 samples of ready-to-eat salads, and 187 samples of ham. 312 strains of Enterococcus spp sam
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