関: C. elegans、Caenorhabditis、Caenorhabditis briggsae、nematode

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unsegmented worms with elongated rounded body pointed at both ends; mostly free-living but some are parasitic (同)nematode worm, roundworm

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線虫(環節のない細長い虫)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/12/02 08:26:09」(JST)

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Caenorhabditis elegans（C. elegans、"シー・エレガンス"、カエノラブディティス・エレガンス^[1]）は、線形動物門双腺綱桿線虫亜綱カンセンチュウ目カンセンチュウ科に属する線虫の1種。土壌に生息し細菌類を食べる。体長約 1mm で透明な体をもつ。実験材料として非常に優れた性質をもつことから、モデル生物として広く利用されている。多細胞生物として最初に全ゲノム配列が解読された生物でもある。

生物学的特性[編集]

多くの線虫が他生物に寄生することが知られるが、線形動物門に占める割合としては大半の種は寄生せず、C. elegans も自由生活性である。実験室では寒天培地上に生やした大腸菌を餌として飼育される。

性染色体による性決定は XO 型である。XX の個体は雌雄同体になり、XO の個体は雄になる。雌雄同体は幼虫期に 300 個弱の精子を作り、成虫期になると卵形成し、貯めておいた精子を使って自家受精を行う。一個体が産卵する子孫は 300 匹弱。このことは実験上、遺伝的な背景を均一にすることに役立つ。一方、雄は約 0.1% の割合で現れる。これと雌雄同体とを交配させることも可能。

雌雄同体成虫の体細胞は 959 個、雄では 1031 個。神経、筋肉、消化管、表皮、生殖巣といった組織、器官をもつ。胚は約14時間で孵化し、幼虫(L1-4)はクチクラ層の脱皮を4回繰り返し成虫になる。体の半分以上の体積を占める生殖系列細胞は 1000 個を越えることもある。

神経細胞はわずか 302 個で、頭部の神経環と呼ばれる部位に多数集まり脳に相当する領域を形作っている。これだけの細胞で物理刺激に対する回避運動や、化学物質（塩化ナトリウムなど）や温度と餌を関連付けた学習やベンズアルデヒドなどの誘引性揮発性物質に対する順応などの行動を示す。また、個々の神経がどの細胞とシナプスもしくはギャップジャンクションを形成しているかが透過型電子顕微鏡の連続切片像から完全に再構築されていることや、レーザーを照射して特定の神経細胞を破壊する実験などから、どの神経細胞がどのような行動に関わるかもある程度わかっている。

モデル生物としての C. elegans[編集]

モデル生物としての歴史は1960年代に始まる。当時シドニー・ブレナーは発生過程と神経系の問題が今後の生物学で重要な分野になると考えた。分子生物学の成功には、大腸菌などのモデル生物（取り扱いやすく、大量に培養可能で、遺伝学や生化学的手法が使えるという性質をもっている）を使ったことが大きく関与していると考えた彼は、同様の特徴を持つ多細胞生物として C. elegans をモデル生物とすることを提案した。当初近縁種の C. briggsae も候補にあげられていたが、ブレナーの好みで C. elegans になったとされる。

それ以前の発生生物学上のモデル生物としては古典的な発生学以来のウニやイモリ、分化の過程に関しては細胞性粘菌（キイロタマホコリカビ）がよく使われたが、前者はその体が大きく複雑に過ぎ、後者では体の構造がないに等しく、多細胞動物とは比較できない。そのため、後生動物でありながら体が小さく細胞数が少なく、しかも培養がたやすいものが必要であり、C. elegans はこれらの条件に良く合っている。現在では Caenorhabditis Genetics Center ^[2]に登録される研究室は 400 を越える。

C. elegans をモデル生物として確立し、器官発生とアポトーシスの遺伝制御に関する発見をした成果に対し、ブレナーおよびロバート・ホロビッツ、ジョン・サルストンは2002年にノーベル生理学・医学賞を受賞した。

1990年にヒトゲノム計画のモデル系として、全ゲノム配列の決定が3年間のパイロットプロジェクトとして開始された。これはアメリカ国立衛生研究所とMRC分子生物学研究所の資金提供によるものである。1994年の資金追加を経て、1998年に多細胞生物として初めて 97Mb の塩基配列読み取りが完了した。その結果、6本の染色体上に約 19000 個の遺伝子の存在が予測された。

また、2本鎖の RNA を導入すると、それと相同の配列を持つ遺伝子の発現が抑制されるという、RNAi と呼ばれる遺伝子抑制手法が初めて確立された生物でもある。1998年にアンドリュー・ファイアーらにより報告されたこの現象は siRNA の発見へとつながり、現在遺伝子治療でもっとも期待される手法の一つとなっている。RNAi という現象を発見した成果に対し、ファイアーとクレイグ・メローは2006年にノーベル生理学・医学賞を受賞した。

注釈・参考文献[編集]

^ より厳密な音写だと「カエノラブディティス・エーレガンス」
^ Caenorhabditis Genetics Center

Baldwin, J. G., Nadler, S. A., Adams, B. J. EVOLUTION OF PLANT PARASITISM AMONG NEMATODES.2004. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 42, 83-105.
Politz. S. M., Philipp, M. Caenorhabditis elegans as a model for parasitic nematodes: A focus on the cuticle. Parasitol. Today. 1992. 8(1):6-12.

外部リンク[編集]

ウィキメディア・コモンズには、C. elegansに関連するメディアがあります。

Caenorhabditis elegans - 脳科学辞典
Caenorhabditis elegans WWW Server
虫の集い - C. elegans 研究者コミュニティ

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

"C. elegans" redirects here. For other uses, see C. elegans (disambiguation).

Caenorhabditis elegans /ˌseɪnɵræbˈdɪtɪs ˈɛlɛɡænz/ is a free-living (non-sessile), transparent nematode (roundworm), about 1 mm in length,^[2] that lives in temperate soil environments. The name is a blend of Greek (caeno- - recent, rhabditis - rod-like)^[3] and Latin (elegans - elegant). In 1900, Maupas initially named it Rhabditides elegans, Osche placed it in the subgenus Caenorhabditis in 1952, and Dougherty raised it to generic status in 1955.^[4] In 1974, Sydney Brenner began research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans, which has since been extensively used as a model organism.^[5]

C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its genome completely sequenced.

Anatomy[edit]

Movement of wild-type C. elegans

C. elegans is unsegmented, vermiform, and bilaterally symmetrical. It has a cuticle, four main epidermal cords, and a fluid-filled pseudocoelom, (body cavity). They also have some of the same organ systems as larger animals. Almost all individuals of C. elegans are female hermaphrodites; and there is a small minority of, around one in a thousand, true males.^[6] The basic anatomy of C. elegans includes a mouth, pharynx, intestine, gonad, and collagenous cuticle. Males have a single-lobed gonad, a vas deferens, and a tail specialized for mating, which incorporates spicules . Hermaphrodites have two ovaries, oviducts, spermatheca, and a single uterus. The four bands of muscles that run the length of the body are connected to a neural system that allows the muscles to move the animal's body only in the dorsal/ventral direction; hence, any living, moving individual is always on either its left or its right side when observed crossing a horizontal surface.

Microanatomy[edit]

There are numerous gut granules present in the intestine of C. elegans, the functions of which are still not fully known, as are many other aspects of this nematode, despite the many years that it has been studied. These gut granules are found in all of the Rhabdita orders. They are very similar to lysosomes in that they feature an acidic interior and the capacity for endocytosis, but they are considerably larger, reinforcing the view of their being a storage organelle. A remarkable feature of the granules is that when they are looked at under ultraviolet light, they react by emitting an intense blue fluorescence. Another phenomenon seen is termed death fluorescence. As the worms die, a dramatic burst of blue fluorescence is emitted. This death fluorescence typically takes place in an anterior to posterior wave that moves along the intestine, and is seen in both young and old worms, subjected to lethal injury or peacefully dying of old age. There have been many theories on the functions of the gut granules with earlier ones being eliminated by later findings. It is thought that they store zinc as one of their functions. Recent chemical analysis has identified the blue fluorescent material that they contain as a glycosylated form of anthranilic acid (AA). The need for the large amounts of AA that the many gut granules contain is questioned. One possibility is that the AA is anti-bacterial and used in defense of invading pathogens. Another possibility, is that the granules provide photoprotection: the bursts of AA fluorescence entails the conversion of damaging UV light to relatively harmless visible light. There is seen a possible link here to the melanin containing melanosomes.^[7]

Reproduction[edit]

Anatomical diagram of a male C. elegans

The hermaphrodite, which is considered to be a specialized form of self-fertile female because its soma is female whereas its germ line produces male gametes first, lays eggs through its uterus after internal fertilization. Under environmental conditions which are favourable for reproduction, hatched larvae develop through 4 stages or molts, designated as (L1 to L4). When conditions are stressed as in food insufficiency, C. elegans can enter an alternative third larval stage called the dauer state. Dauer is German for permanent. Dauer larvae are stress-resistant and do not age. Hermaphrodites produce all their sperm in the L4 stage (150 sperm per gonadal arm) and then produce only oocytes. The sperm are stored in the same area of the gonad as the oocytes until the first oocyte pushes the sperm into the spermatheca (a chamber wherein the oocytes become fertilized by the sperm).^[8] The male can inseminate the hermaphrodite, which will preferentially use male sperm (both types of sperm are stored in the spermatheca). When self-inseminated, the wild-type worm will lay approximately 300 eggs. When inseminated by a male, the number of progeny can exceed 1,000. At 20 °C, the laboratory strain of C. elegans has an average life span of approximately two–three weeks and a generation time of approximately four days.

Ecology[edit]

The different Caenorhabditis species occupy various nutrient and bacteria rich environments. They feed on the bacteria that develop in decaying organic matter. Soil lacks enough organic matter to support self-sustaining populations. C. elegans can survive on a diet of a variety of many kinds of bacteria, but its wild ecology is largely unknown. Most laboratory strains were taken from artificial environments such as gardens and compost piles. More recently, C. elegans has been found to be thriving in other kinds of organic matter, particularly rotting fruit.^[9] Invertebrates such as millipedes, insects, isopods, and gastropods can transport dauer larvae, to various suitable locations. The larvae have also been seen to feed on their host when it dies.^[10]

Nematodes can survive desiccation, and in C. elegans the mechanism for this capability has been demonstrated to be late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins.^[11]

Research use[edit]

Asymmetric cell divisions during early embryogenesis of C. elegans.

In 1963, Sydney Brenner proposed using C. elegans as a model organism for the investigation of animal development; e.g., neural development. Brenner chose it mainly because it is simple, easy to grow in bulk populations, and convenient for genetic analysis.^[12] It is a multicellular eukaryotic organism that is simple enough to be studied in great detail. Strains are cheap to breed and can be frozen. When subsequently thawed, they remain viable, allowing long-term storage.^[13] Its other desirable properties are:

The transparency of C. elegans facilitates studying cellular differentiation and other developmental processes in the intact organism. The morphology of the tail region clearly distinguishes males from hermaphrodites.

The developmental fate of every single somatic cell (959 in the adult hermaphrodite; 1031 in the adult male) has been mapped.^[14]^[15] These patterns of cell lineage are largely invariant between individuals, unlike in mammals, wherein cell development from the embryo more depends on cellular cues.

The first cell divisions of early embryogenesis are among the best understood examples of asymmetric cell divisions.^[16]

Programmed cell death (apoptosis) eliminates many additional cells (131 in the hermaphrodite, most of which would otherwise become neurons); this "apoptotic predictability" has contributed to the elucidation of some apoptotic genes, mainly through observation of abnormal, apoptosis-surviving nematodes.

Wild-type C. elegans hermaphrodite stained with the fluorescent dye Texas Red to highlight the nuclei of all cells

It is one of the simplest organisms with a nervous system. In the hermaphrodite, this system comprises 302 neurons^[17] the pattern of which, or "connectome", has been completely mapped and shown to be a small-world network.^[18] Research has explored the neural mechanisms that control several of the more interesting behaviors of C. elegans; e.g., chemotaxis, thermotaxis, mechanotransduction, and male mating behavior.

RNA interference (RNAi), is a relatively straightforward method of disrupting the function of specific genes. Silencing the function of a gene can sometimes allow a researcher to infer its possible function(s). The nematode can be either soaked in or injected with a solution of double-stranded RNA, the sequence of which complements the sequence of the gene that the researcher wishes to disable; worms can alternatively be fed genetically transformed bacteria that express the double-stranded RNA of interest. gene loss-of-function experiments in C. elegans are the easiest of all animal models, enabling scientists to establish that only 9% of the 20,000 gene genome has a functional role.^[19]

Environmental RNAi uptake is much worse in other species of worm in the Caenorhabditis genus. Although injecting RNA into the body cavity of the animal induces gene silencing in most species, only C. elegans and a few other distantly related nematodes can uptake RNA from the bacteria that they eat for RNAi.^[20] This ability has been mapped down to a single gene, sid-2, which, when inserted as a transgene in other species, allows them to so uptake RNA for RNAi as C. elegans does.^[21]

Studying meiosis is considerably simplified. As sperm and egg nuclei move down the gonad, so they temporally progress through meiotic events; the difficulties of heterogenous cellular populations are eliminated because every nucleus at a given position in the gonad therefore is at roughly the same step in meiosis.

It can also be used to study nicotine dependence because it exhibits behavioral responses to nicotine that parallel those of mammals; e.g., acute response, tolerance, withdrawal, and sensitization.^[22]

As for most model organisms, scientists that work in the field curate a dedicated online database for C. elegans. The WormBase database attempts to collate all published information on C. elegans and other related nematodes. Their website has advertised a reward of $4000 for the finder of a new species of closely related nematode.^[23] Such a discovery would broaden research opportunities with the worm.^[24]

C. elegans has been a model organism for research into ageing; for example - the inhibition of an insulin-like growth factor (IGF), signaling pathway has been shown to increase adult lifespan threefold.^[25] Moreover, extensive research on C. elegans has identified RNA-binding proteins as essential factors during germline and early embryonic development.

C. elegans has five pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex in C. elegans is based on an X0 sex-determination system. Hermaphrodite C. elegans have a matched pair of sex chromosomes (XX); the rare males have only one sex chromosome (X0). The sperm of C. elegans is ameboid, lacking flagella and acrosomes.

C. elegans is notable in animal sleep studies as the most primitive organism to display sleep-like states. In C. elegans, a lethargus phase occurs shortly before each moult.

Space travel research[edit]

C. elegans made news when specimens were discovered to have survived the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in February 2003.^[26] Later, in January 2009, live samples of C. elegans from the University of Nottingham were announced to be spending two weeks on the International Space Station that October in a project to explore the effects of zero gravity on muscle development and physiology. The research was primarily about genetic basis of muscle atrophy, which relates to space travel or being bed-ridden, geriatric, or diabetic.^[27] Descendants of the worms aboard Columbia in 2003 were launched into space on Endeavour for the STS-134 mission.^[28]

Genome[edit]

C. elegans adult with GFP coding sequence inserted into a histone-encoding gene by Cas9-triggered homologous recombination

C. elegans hermaphrodite

C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its genome completely sequenced. The sequence was published in 1998^[29] although some small gaps were present; the last gap was finished by October 2002. The C. elegans genome is approximately 100 million base pairs long and consists of six chromosomes (named I, II, III, IV, V and X) and a mitochondrial genome. Its gene density is about 1 gene/5kb. Introns, or non-expressed sequences, are 26% of the genome. Some large, intergenic regions contain repetitive DNA sequences. Many genes are arranged in operons, which are polycistronic series that are together transcribed. C. elegans and other nematodes are among the few eukaryotes currently known to have operons.^[30]

The genome contains approximately 20,470 protein-coding genes.^[31] The number of known RNA genes in the genome has increased greatly due to the 2006 discovery of a new class of 21U-RNA genes,^[32] and the genome is now believed to contain more than 16,000 RNA genes, up from as few as 1,300 in 2005.^[33] Scientific curators continue to appraise the set of known genes: new gene predictions continue to be added and incorrect ones modified or removed.

In 2003, the genome sequence of the related nematode C. briggsae was also determined, allowing researchers to study the comparative genomics of these two organisms.^[34] The genome sequences of more nematodes from the same genus e.g., C. remanei,^[35] C. japonica^[36] and C. brenneri are under study ^[37] via the whole genome shotgun technique, which is less complete and accurate than the "hierarchical" or clone-by-clone approach that was used on C. elegans.

The official version of the C. elegans genome sequence continues to change as new evidence reveals errors in the original sequencing. Most changes are minor, adding or removing only a few base pairs (bp) of DNA. For example, the WS202 release of WormBase (April 2009) added two base pairs to the genome sequence.^[38] More extensive changes are sometimes made; e.g., the WS197 release of December 2008, which added a region of over 4,600 bp to the sequence.^[39]^[40]

Evolution[edit]

A few conserved protein sequences in the distantly related sponges more resemble those of humans than of C. elegans.^[41] An accelerated rate of evolution may therefore have occurred in the C. elegans lineage. The same study found that several phylogenetically ancient genes are absent in C. elegans.

Scientific community[edit]

In 2002, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston for their work on the genetics of organ development and programmed cell death in C. elegans. The 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello for their discovery of RNA interference in C. elegans.^[42] In 2008, Martin Chalfie shared a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on green fluorescent protein, some of which research involved the use of C. elegans.

Many scientists who research C. elegans closely connect to Sydney Brenner, with whom almost all research in this field began in the 1970s; they have worked as either a post-doctoral or a post-graduate researcher in Brenner's lab or in the lab of someone who previously worked with Brenner. Most who worked in his lab later established their own worm research labs, thereby creating a fairly well-documented "lineage" of C. elegans scientists, which was recorded into the WormBase database in some detail at the 2003 International Worm Meeting.

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^ Gamulin, V; Muller, IM; Muller, WEG (2000). "Sponge proteins are more similar to those of Homo sapiens than to Caenorhabditis elegans". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 71 (4): 821–828. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01293.x.
^ Fire, A; Xu, S; Montgomery, MK; Kostas, SA; Driver, SE; Mello, CC (1998). "Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans". Nature 391 (6669): 806–11. Bibcode:1998Natur.391..806F. doi:10.1038/35888. PMID 9486653.

External links[edit]

Brenner S (2002) Nature's Gift to Science. In. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2002/brenner-lecture.pdf
Horvitz HR (2002) Worms, Life and Death. In. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2002/horvitz-lecture.pdf
Sulston JE (2002) The Cell Lineage and Beyond. In. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2002/sulston-lecture.pdf
WormBase – an extensive online database covering the biology and genomics of C. elegans and other nematodes
WormBook – a free online compendium of all aspects of C. elegans biology, including laboratory protocols
Wormatlas – an online database for behavioral and structural anatomy of C. elegans
3D digital atlas of C. elegans – a 3D digital atlas at the single nucleus resolution with searching functions, quantitative analysis and 3D visualization tool for the structural anatomy of C. elegans
Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute C. elegans page – half of the genome sequence is maintained by this institute
WashU Genome Sequencing Center C. elegans page^{[dead link]} – the institute maintaining the other half of the genome
AceView WormGenes – another genome database for C. elegans, maintained at the NCBI
TCNJ Worm Lab – Easy to follow protocols and pictures for C. elegans research. Made by undergrads for undergrads.
Worm Classroom – An education portal for C. elegans
Textpresso – WormBase search engine
C. elegans movies – Timelapse films made by C. elegans researchers worldwide
C. elegans II – a free online textbook.
Silencing Genomes RNA interference (RNAi) experiments and bioinformatics in C. elegans for education. From the Dolan DNA Learning Center of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
C. elegans 3D model by the Ewbank Lab – Videos and photos that explain the basic anatomy of C. elegans
C. elegans protein abundance
WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Neural Network – Connectivity between all 302 neurons, including a feature to search and find the shortest path between any 2 neurons
WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell Lineage – The divisions that lead to every cell in the worm
View the Caenorhabditis elegans genome in Ensembl

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1. アポトーシスと自己免疫疾患 apoptosis and autoimmune disease
2. 遺伝学およびゲノミクスのためのツール：モデルシステム tools for genetics and genomics model systems
3. 正常思春期 normal puberty

English Journal

Temperature, stress and spontaneous mutation in Caenorhabditis briggsae and Caenorhabditis elegans.

Matsuba C, Ostrow DG, Salomon MP, Tolani A, Baer CF.SourceDepartment of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-8525, USA.
Biology letters.Biol Lett.2013 Feb 23;9(1):20120334. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2012.0334. Epub 2012 Aug 8.
Mutation rate often increases with environmental temperature, but establishing causality is complicated. Asymmetry between physiological stress and deviation from the optimal temperature means that temperature and stress are often confounded. We allowed mutations to accumulate in two species of Caen
PMID 22875817

Anthelmintic effect of plant extracts containing condensed and hydrolyzable tannins on Caenorhabditis elegans, and their antioxidant capacity.

Katiki LM, Ferreira JF, Gonzalez JM, Zajac AM, Lindsay DS, Chagas AC, Amarante AF.SourceInstituto de Zootecnia (SAA-APTA), Rua Heitor Penteado 56, Nova Odessa, SP 13460-000, Brazil.
Veterinary parasitology.Vet Parasitol.2013 Feb 18;192(1-3):218-27. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.09.030. Epub 2012 Oct 1.
Although tannin-rich forages are known to increase protein uptake and to reduce gastrointestinal nematode infections in grazing ruminants, most published research involves forages with condensed tannins (CT), while published literature lacks information on the anthelmintic capacity, nutritional bene
PMID 23102761

Japanese Journal

Effects of sequential infections of Caenorhabditis elegans with Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus mirabilis

JebaMercy Gnanasekaran,Balamurugan Krishnaswamy
Microbiology and immunology 56(12), 825-835, 2012-12
NAID 40019504330

A Caenorhabditis elegans Insulin-Like Peptide, INS-17 : Its Physiological Function and Expression Pattern

MATSUNAGA Yohei,NAKAJIMA Kensuke,GENGYO-ANDO Keiko [他]
Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 76(11), 2168-2172, 2012-11
NAID 40019499054

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「nematode」「Caenorhabditis briggsae」「C. elegans」「線虫」「エレガンス線虫」
関連記事	「Caenorhabditis」「elegans」

「nematode」

Caenorhabditis elegans
	An adult hermaphrodite C. elegans worm
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Nematoda
Class:	Chromadorea
Order:	Rhabditida
Family:	Rhabditidae
Genus:	Caenorhabditis
Species:	C. elegans
Binomial name
	Caenorhabditis elegans; (Maupas, 1900)

Caenorhabditis elegans
	C. elegans の微分干渉顕微鏡像
分類
学名
	Caenorhabditis elegans; Maupas, 1900

　　[★]

線形動物、線虫

関: C. elegans、Caenorhabditis briggsae、Caenorhabditis elegans、Nematoda

「Caenorhabditis briggsae」

　　[★]

線虫、ブリグサ線虫

関: C. elegans、Caenorhabditis elegans、nematode

「C. elegans」

　　[★]

線虫

関: Caenorhabditis briggsae、Caenorhabditis elegans、nematode

「線虫」

　　[★]

英: nematode
関: 線虫門、Caenorhabditis elegans

「エレガンス線虫」

　　[★]

ラ: Caenorhabditis elegans
関: 線虫

「Caenorhabditis」

　　[★]

線虫類、線虫属、カエノルハブディティス属、Caenorhabditis属

関: Caenorhabditis elegans

「elegans」

　　[★]

Caenorhabditis elegans

[1] より厳密な音写だと「カエノラブディティス・エーレガンス」

[2] Caenorhabditis Genetics Center

[1] Maupas, É (1900). "Modes et formes de reproduction des nématodes". Archives de Zoologie Expérimentale et Générale 8: 463–624.

[2] Wood, WB (1988). The Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-87969-433-5.

[3] καινός (caenos) = new, recent; ῥάβδος (rhabdos) = rod, wand.

[4] Ferris, H (30 November 2013). "Caenorhabditis elegans". University of California, Davis. Retrieved 2013-11-19.

[5] Brenner, S (1974). "The Genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans". Genetics 77 (1): 71–94. PMC 1213120. PMID 4366476.

[6] Alberts, B; Johnson, A; Lewis, J; Raff, M; Roberts, K; Walter, P (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell (5th ed.). Garland Science. p. 1321. ISBN 978-0-8153-4105-5.

[7] Coburn, C; Gems, D (2013). "The mysterious case of the C. Elegans gut granule: Death fluorescence, anthranilic acid and the kynurenine pathway". Frontiers in Genetics 4: 151. doi:10.3389/fgene.2013.00151. PMC 3735983. PMID 23967012.

[8] Nayak, S; Goree, J; Schedl, T (2004). "fog-2 and the Evolution of Self-Fertile Hermaphroditism in Caenorhabditis". PLoS Biology 3 (1): e6. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030006. PMC 539060. PMID 15630478.

[9] Félix, MA; Braendle, C (2010). "The natural history of Caenorhabditis elegans". Current Biology 20 (22): R965–R969. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.09.050. PMID 21093785.

[10] Kiontke, K; Sudhaus, W (2006). "Ecology of Caenorhabditis species". WormBook: 1–14. doi:10.1895/wormbook.1.37.1. PMID 18050464.

[11] Gal, TZ; Glazer, I; Koltai, H (2004). "An LEA group 3 family member is involved in survival of C. elegans during exposure to stress". FEBS Letters 577 (1–2): 21–26. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2004.09.049. PMID 15527756.

[12] Avery, L. "Sydney Brenner". Southwestern Medical Center. ^{[dead link]}

[13] Brenner, S (1974). "The Genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans". Genetics 77 (1): 71–94. PMC 1213120. PMID 4366476.

[14] Sulston, JE; Horvitz, HR (1977). "Post-embryonic cell lineages of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans". Developmental Biology 56 (1): 110–56. doi:10.1016/0012-1606(77)90158-0. PMID 838129.

[15] Kimble, J; Hirsh, D (1979). "The postembryonic cell lineages of the hermaphrodite and male gonads in Caenorhabditis elegans". Developmental Biology 70 (2): 396–417. doi:10.1016/0012-1606(79)90035-6. PMID 478167.

[16] Gönczy, P (2005). "Asymmetric cell division and axis formation in the embryo". WormBook: 1. doi:10.1895/wormbook.1.30.1.

[17] Kosinski, RA; Zaremba, M (2007). "Dynamics of the Model of the Caenorhabditis elegans Neural Network". Acta Physica Polonica B 38 (6): 2201. Bibcode:2007AcPPB..38.2201K.

[18] Watts, DJ; Strogatz, SH (1998). "Collective dynamics of 'small-world' networks". Nature 393 (6684): 440–442. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..440W. doi:10.1038/30918. PMID 9623998.

[19] Kamath, RS; et al. (2003). "Systematic functional analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans genome using RNAi". Nature 421 (6920): 231–237. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..231K. doi:10.1038/nature01278. PMID 12529635.

[20] Félix, M-A (2008). "RNA interference in nematodes and the chance that favored Sydney Brenner". Journal of Biology 7 (9): 34–56. doi:10.1186/jbiol97. PMC 2776389. PMID 19014674.

[21] Winston, WM; Sutherlin, M; Wright, AJ; Feinberg, EH; Hunter, CP (2007). "Caenorhabditis elegans SID-2 is required for environmental RNA interference". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (25): 10565. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10410565W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0611282104.

[22] Feng, Z; Li, W; Ward, A; Piggott, BJ; Larkspur, ER; Sternberg, PW; Xu, XZ (2006). "A C. elegans model of nicotine-dependent behavior: regulation by TRP family channels". Cell 127 (3): 621–633. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.09.035. PMC 2859215. PMID 17081982.

[23] "Caenorhabditis isolation guide". WormBase. Retrieved 2007-08-30. ^{[dead link]}

[24] Dolgin, E (2007). "Slime for a dime". Science 317 (5842): 1157. doi:10.1126/science.317.5842.1157b.

[25] Wolkow, CA; Kimura, KD; Lee, M-S; Ruvkun, G (2000). "Regulation of C. elegans Life-Span by Insulin-like Signaling in the Nervous System". Science 290 (5489): 147–150. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..147W. doi:10.1126/science.290.5489.147. PMID 11021802.

[26] "Worms survived Columbia disaster". BBC News. 1 May 2003. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

[27] "University sends worms into space". BBC News. 17 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-09.

[28] Klotz, I (16 May 2011). "Legacy Space Worms Flying on Shuttle". Discovery News. Retrieved 2011-05-17.

[29] The C. elegans Sequencing Consortium (1998). "Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: A platform for investigating biology". Science 282 (5396): 2012–2018. doi:10.1126/science.282.5396.2012. PMID 9851916.

[30] Blumenthal, T (2004). "Operons in eukaryotes". Briefings in Functional Genomics and Proteomics 3 (3): 199–211. doi:10.1093/bfgp/3.3.199. PMID 15642184.

[31] "WS227 Release Letter". WormBase. 10 August 2011. Retrieved 2013-11-19.

[32] Ruby, JG; Jan, C; Player, C; Axtell, MJ; Lee, W; Nusbaum, C; Ge, H; Bartel, DP (2006). "Large-Scale Sequencing Reveals 21U-RNAs and Additional MicroRNAs and Endogenous siRNAs in C. Elegans". Cell 127 (6): 1193–207. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.10.040. PMID 17174894.

[33] Stricklin, SL; Griffiths-Jones, S; Eddy, SR (2005). "C. elegans noncoding RNA genes". WormBook. doi:10.1895/wormbook.1.1.1.

[34] Stein, LD; et al. (2003). "The Genome Sequence of Caenorhabditis briggsae: A Platform for Comparative Genomics". PLoS Biology 1 (2): 166–192. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000045. PMC 261899. PMID 14624247.

[35] Genome Sequencing Center. "Caenorhabditis remanei: Background". Washington University School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

[36] Genome Sequencing Center. "Caenorhabditis japonica: Background". Washington University School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

[37] Genome Sequencing Center. "Caenorhabditis brenneri: Background". Washington University School of Medicine. Retrieved 2008-07-11. ^{[dead link]}

[WS202-38] "WS202 Release Letter". WormBase. 29 May 2009. Retrieved 2013-11-19.

[WS197-39] "WS197 Release Letter". WormBase. 27 November 2008. Retrieved 2013-11-19.

[GenomeChanges-40] "Genome sequence changes". WormBase. 15 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-13.

[41] Gamulin, V; Muller, IM; Muller, WEG (2000). "Sponge proteins are more similar to those of Homo sapiens than to Caenorhabditis elegans". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 71 (4): 821–828. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01293.x.

[42] Fire, A; Xu, S; Montgomery, MK; Kostas, SA; Driver, SE; Mello, CC (1998). "Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans". Nature 391 (6669): 806–11. Bibcode:1998Natur.391..806F. doi:10.1038/35888. PMID 9486653.

Caenorhabditis elegans

An adult hermaphrodite C. elegans worm
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Nematoda
Class:	Chromadorea
Order:	Rhabditida
Family:	Rhabditidae
Genus:	Caenorhabditis
Species:	C. elegans
Binomial name
*Caenorhabditis elegans* (Maupas, 1900)^[1]

匿名

検索

案内

Caenorhabditis elegans