For other uses, see Wisdom (disambiguation).
Rays of light, symbolically represented as horns on the head of Moses (Michelangelo), can be a graphic symbol of Wisdom
Wisdom is a deep understanding and realization of people, things, events or situations, resulting in the ability to apply perceptions, judgements and actions in keeping with this understanding. It often requires control of one's emotional reactions (the "passions") so that universal principles, reason and knowledge prevail to determine one's actions. Wisdom is also the comprehension of what is true coupled with optimum judgment as to action. Synonyms include: sagacity, discernment, or insight.
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Contents
- 1 Philosophical perspectives of wisdom
- 2 Educational perspectives of wisdom
- 3 Psychological perspectives
- 4 Religious perspectives
- 4.1 Ancient Egypt
- 4.2 Hebrew Bible & Judaism
- 4.3 New Testament & Christianity
- 4.4 Qur'an & Islam
- 4.5 Eastern religions and philosophy
- 4.6 Hinduism
- 5 Sapience
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 Further reading
- 9 External links
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Philosophical perspectives of wisdom
Personification of wisdom (in Greek, "
Σοφία" or "
Sophia") at the Celsus Library in Ephesus, Turkey.
A basic definition of wisdom is the use of knowledge.[1] The opposite of wisdom is folly.
The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Athena is said to have sprung from the head of Zeus. She was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.[2] To Socrates and Plato, philosophy was literally the love of Wisdom (philo-sophia). This permeates Plato's dialogues, especially The Republic, in which the leaders of his proposed utopia are to be philosopher kings: rulers who understand the Form of the Good and possess the courage to act accordingly. Aristotle, in his Metaphysics, defined wisdom as the understanding of causes, i.e. knowing why things are a certain way, which is deeper than merely knowing that things are a certain way.[3]
The ancient Romans also valued wisdom. It was personified in Minerva, or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to be born from Jupiter's brain.[4]
Wisdom is also important within Christianity. Jesus emphasized it.[5][6] Paul the Apostle, in his first epistle to the Corinthians, argued that there is both secular and divine wisdom, urging Christians to pursue the latter. Prudence, which is intimately related to wisdom, became one of the four cardinal virtues of Catholicism. The Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas considered wisdom to be the "father" (i.e. the cause, measure, and form) of all virtues.
In the Inuit tradition, developing wisdom was the aim of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person became wise when they could see what needed to be done and do it successfully without being told what to do.
The Native American's philosophy about being a part of the natural environment contrasted to the European's culture of conquering nature's gifts. The Native American's wisdom about maintaining balance ecologically and socially was a common-sense approach to protecting and conserving natural resources.[7]
Educational perspectives of wisdom
Public schools in the US have an approach to character education. In Benjamin Franklin’s time, it was referred to as training wisdom and virtue. Traditionally, schools share the responsibility to build character and wisdom along with parents and the community.[8]
Nicholas Maxwell, a contemporary philosopher in the United Kingdom, advocates that academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom, which he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.[9] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act which, without wisdom, may cause human suffering and death as well as human benefit.
Psychological perspectives
Psychologists have gathered data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.[10] These analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is a distinct term and not a composite of other terms."[11] Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective/wisdom do not depend on age.[12][13] This stands in contrast to the popular notion that wisdom increases with age,[13] supported by a recent study showing that regardless of their education, IQ or gender, older adults possess superior reasoning about societal and interpersonal conflicts.[14] In many cultures the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, e.g. as in the English wisdom tooth. In 2009, a study reviewed which brain processes might be related to wisdom.[15]
Researchers in the field of positive psychology have defined wisdom as the coordination of "knowledge and experience" and "its deliberate use to improve well being."[16] With this definition, wisdom can supposedly be measured using the following criteria.[12]
- A wise person has self-knowledge.
- A wise person seems sincere and direct with others.
- Others ask wise people for advice.
- A wise person's actions are consistent with his/her ethical beliefs.
Measurement instruments that use these criteria have acceptable to good internal consistency and low to moderate test-retest reliability (r in the range of 0.35 to 0.67).[12]
Religious perspectives
Further information: Sophia (wisdom)
Some religions have specific teachings relating to wisdom.
Ancient Egypt
Sia represents the personification of wisdom or the god of wisdom in Ancient Egyptian Mythology.
Hebrew Bible & Judaism
In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is represented by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in 2Chronicles 1. Much of the Book of Proverbs, a book of wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In Proverbs 1:7 and Proverbs 9:10, the awe of YHWH is called the beginning or foundation of wisdom while Proverbs 8:13 declares "To fear YHWH is to hate injustice". In Proverbs 1:20, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." (Adan) Continuing in Proverbs 8:22-31, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even taking part in creation itself, delighting especially in human beings.
It has been posited that an ancient belief existed among the Jews and Samaritans that both the wisest and most aged among them would grow caprine horns, which were known euphemistically as "rays of light" (נקודת אור), hence the following ancient Hebrew dictums:[17]
- From Wisdom's ("Power" or "an animal horn") Authority is born.
- His Wisdom shone (qaran) unto them like ("power" or "an animal horn") (qeren) of light - (perhaps a more poetic translation would be 'his wisdom shone like a powerful beam of light').
However this is most likely a mistranslation of the Hebrew 'Keren' which means 'pride/defiance' (Psalm 75:4-5; Psalm 74:5-6 in Douay-Rheims) in the emotive context but 'animal horn' in the Vulgate translation.[18] Possibly one of the most famous results of this translation was Michelangelo's addition of horns to his statue of Moses. In a general sense the Hebrew for "horn" can be taken to represent the emotive and political concept of power. There is further reference to 'horns' later in the Psalm (Psalm 75:10, or Psalm 74:11 in Douay-Rheims which speaks of horns being 'cut' from the wicked or 'exalted' for the righteous.
The word wisdom (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). Both the books of Proverbs and Psalms urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom. Here are some of the roles that the Hebrew Bible ascribes to wisdom:
- Building and establishing civilization (Proverbs 24:3-4).
- Elevating life (Proverbs 3:21-23).
- Safety and avoiding misery (Proverbs 3:21-23).
- Exceeding the value of gold and silver (Proverbs 16:16).
- Giver of patience and glory (Proverbs 19:11).
- She (Wisdom) is the primal architect of creation who existed with God before the universe was formed (Proverbs 8:30)[19]
Wisdom is also personified as a righteous woman in the Book of Proverbs.
Main article: wisdom (personification)
New Testament & Christianity
Further information: Sophia_(wisdom)
There is an oppositional element in Christian thought between secular wisdom and Godly wisdom. The apostle Paul states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are saved Christ represents the wisdom of God. (1Corinthians 1:17-31) Also, Wisdom is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit according to Anglican, Catholic, and Lutheran belief. 1Corinthians 12:8-10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which wisdom is one.
Qur'an & Islam
In Islam, Wisdom is deemed as one of the greatest gifts humankind can enjoy. The Quran states :
"He gives wisdom to whom He wills, and whoever has been given wisdom has certainly been given much good. And none will remember except those of understanding."
— Qur'an, sura 2 (Al-Baqara), ayat 269[20]
There are a number of verses where the Q'uran specifically talks about the nature of wisdom. In Surah 22 Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage) it is said, "Have they not travelled in the land, and have they hearts wherewith to feel and ears wherewith to hear? For indeed it is not the eyes that grow blind, but it is the hearts, which are within the bosoms, that grow blind." (verse 46). In another Surah Al-'An`ām (The Cattle) it's said,
"Say: "Come, I will rehearse what Allah (God) hath (really) prohibited you from": Join not anything as equal with Him; be good to your parents; kill not your children on a plea of want;― We provide sustenance for you and for them;― come not nigh to shameful deeds, whether open or secret; take not life, which Allah hath made sacred, except by way of justice and law: thus doth He command you, that ye may learn wisdom"
— Qur'an, sura 6 (Al-An'am), ayat 151[21]
Eastern religions and philosophy
According to Confucius, wisdom can be learned by three methods: Reflection (the noblest), imitation (the easiest) and experience (the bitterest). Wisdom is not told by self but unless asked for by another. This means a wise man never tells his wisdom unless asked person to person. According to "Doctrine of the Mean," Confucius also said, "Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know to be shameful is akin to courage (zhi,ren,yi..three of Mengzi's sprouts of virtue)." Compare this with the beginning of the Confucian classic "Great Learning" which begins with "The Way of learning to be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good" one can clearly see the correlation with the Roman virtue prudence especially if one transliterates clear character as clear conscience. (from Chan's Sources of Chinese Philosophy).
Buddhist scriptures teach that a wise person is endowed with good bodily conduct, good verbal conduct, and good mental conduct.(AN 3:2) A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and doesn’t do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results (AN 4:115). Wisdom is the antidote to the self-chosen poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:
- He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.[22]
- He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.[23]
- One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.[24]
- By quietude alone one does not become a sage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.[25]
In Taoism, wisdom is construed as adherence to the Three Treasures (Taoism): charity, simplicity, and humility.
- Knowing others is intelligence;
- knowing yourself is true wisdom.
- Mastering others is strength;
- mastering yourself is true power.
(Tao Te Ching, 33, tr. S. Mitchell)
Hinduism
The Hinduism can be broadly classified further in Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism and several other small self constructed and modified form of following.
The major knowledge source in Hinduism is the vast knowledge achieved by the sages over thousands of years and stored in form of 4 vedas, 8 siddhis, 9 Niddhis and Major religious books, to say Ramayana and Mahabharata. Wisdom in Hinduism is considered a state of mind and soul where a person achieves salvation.
The God of wisdom is Lord Ganesha and knowledge is goddess Saraswati. The Sanskrit verse to attain knowledge is
"Om Asato maa sad-gamaya;
tamaso maa jyotir-ga-maya;
mrtyor-maa amrutam gamaya.
Om Shaantih Shaantih Shaantih".
"O Lord Lead me from the unreal to the real.
Lead me from the darkness to light.
Lead me from death to immortality.
May there be peace, peace, and perfect peace". a Sanskrit invocation from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishads 1.3.28).
The Hindu religion talks about ayurvede, the wisdom of traditional Hindu medicine. Ayurvede means “knowledge of life”. It teaches that the mind and body are one (an ancient wisdom). In ancient times, it was used to try to cure disease. However, today it is used to help people relax and feel healthy.[26] But this explanation is only a partial explanation for the word "Wisdom". Wisdom as per The Hindu religion is knowing oneself as the truth, basis for the entire Creation,i.e. "Shristi". In other words "wisdom" simply means a person with Self Awareness as the one who witnesses the Entire creation in all its facets and forms. Further it means realization that an individual, i.e. "Jeeva" Atma, through 'right conduct and living' over an unspecified period (it varies from individual to individual) comes to realize his/her true relationship with the creation and the 'God' who rules it.
In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the God of wisdom and intelligence. Wisdom was achieved by restoring balance.
In Norse mythology, the god Odin is especially known for his wisdom, often acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.[27] In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.[28] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.[27]
Sapience
"Sapience" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Sentience.
Sapience is often defined as wisdom, or the ability of an organism or entity to act with appropriate judgment, a mental faculty which is a component of intelligence or alternatively may be considered an additional faculty, apart from intelligence, with its own properties. Robert Sternberg[29] has segregated the capacity for judgment from the general qualifiers for intelligence, which is closer to cognizant aptitude than to wisdom. Displaying sound judgment in a complex, dynamic environment is a hallmark of wisdom.
The word sapience is derived from the Latin sapientia, meaning "wisdom".[30] Related to this word is the Latin verb sapere, meaning "to taste, to be wise, to know"; the present participle of sapere forms part of Homo sapiens, the Latin binomial nomenclature created by Carolus Linnaeus to describe the human species. Linnaeus had originally given humans the species name of diurnus, meaning man of the day. But he later decided that the dominating feature of humans was wisdom, hence application of the name sapiens. His chosen biological name was intended to emphasize man's uniqueness and separation from the rest of the animal kingdom.
In fantasy fiction and science fiction, sapience describes an essential human property that bestows "personhood" onto a non-human. It indicates that a computer, alien, mythical creature or other object will be treated as a completely human character, with similar rights, capabilities and desires as any human character. The words "sentience", "self-awareness" and "consciousness" are used in similar ways in science fiction.
See also
- Analogy
- Bildung
- Book of Wisdom
- Consciousness
- Ecological wisdom
- Human condition
- Intelligence
- Knowledge
- Metacognition
- Perspicacity
- Philosophy
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- Prudence
- Sapere aude
- Sapiens (disambiguation)
- School of Hard Knocks
- Self-awareness
- Sentience
- Sophia
- The Wisdom of Crowds
- Virtue
- Wisdom in Buddhism
- Wisdom literature
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References
- ^ "Wisdom is the right use of knowledge." --Charles Haddon Spurgeon (1834-1892)
- ^ Turnbill, S (2011, 12 8). "Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom and craftsmanship". Goddessgift.com. http://www.goddessgift.com/goddess-myths/greek_goddess_athena.htm.
- ^ But note that two thousand years after Aristotle, Isaac Newton was forced to admit that "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity"
- ^ "Myths about Roman goddess minerva. (n.d.)". Roman-colosseum.info. http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm.
- ^ "Matthew 11:19 KJV: "The Son of man came eating and drinking, and they say, Behold a man gluttonous, and a winebibber, a friend of publicans and sinners. But wisdom is justified of her children". Bible.cc. http://bible.cc/matthew/11-19.htm.
- ^ "Matthew 10:16, KJV: "Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise as serpents, and harmless as doves". Bible.cc. http://bible.cc/matthew/10-16.htm.
- ^ "Native American wisdom". Thewildwest.org. 2010. http://www.thewildwest.org/nativeamericans/nativeamericanwisdom.html.
- ^ "Character education: our shared responsibility". Ed.gov. May 31, 2005. http://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/character/brochure.html.
- ^ knowledgetowisdom.org, Friends of Wisdom "an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means" founded by Maxwell.
- ^ Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607–62.
- ^ Brown, S. C., & Greene, J. A. (2006). The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete. Journal of College Student Development, 47, 1–19.
- ^ a b c Harter, Andrew C. (2004). "8". In Peterson, Christopher and Seligman, Martin E. P.. Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification.. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–196. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.
- ^ a b Orwoll, L.; Perlmutter, M. (1990). R. J. Sternberg. ed. Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–177. ISBN 0-521-36718-2.
- ^ Grossmann, Igor; Jinkyung Na, Michael E W. Varnum, Denise C. Park, Shinobu Kitayama, Richard E. Nisbett (2010). "Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (16): 7246–7250. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001715107. PMC 2867718. PMID 20368436. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/03/23/1001715107. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ Neurobiology of Wisdom: A Literature Overview.
- ^ Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification.. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 106. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.
- ^ Mathers, Samuel Liddell MacGregor; Rosenroth, Christian Knorr von (Freiherr). Kabbala denudata, the Kabbalah unveiled, containing the following books of Zohar. New York: The Theosophical Publishing Company, 1912. p. 107.
- ^ "HORN", Hebrew
- ^ "master workman", Hebrew
- ^ Quran 2:269
- ^ Quran 6:151
- ^ Dhammapada v.256
- ^ Dhammapada v.257
- ^ Dhammapada v.258
- ^ Dhammapada v.268-9
- ^ Jaret, Peter (2006, March 9). "Awash in ancient hindu wisdom". Nytimes.com. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/09/fashion/thursdaystyles/09skin1.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all.
- ^ a b Faulkes, Anthony (transl. and ed.) (1987). Edda (Snorri Sturluson). Everyman. ISBN 0-460-87616-3
- ^ Larrington, Carolyne (transl. and ed.) (1996). Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0-19-283946-2
- ^ Sternberg, Robert J. (2003). Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80238-5.
- ^ Lewis, C.T. and Short, C. (1963). Latin Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864201-5.
Further reading
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This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter. Please help improve this article by clarifying or removing superfluous information. (December 2010) |
- Allen, James Sloan, Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings of Life, Frederic C. Beil, 2008. ISBN 978-1-929490-35-6
- Miller, James, L., "Measures of Wisdom: The Cosmic Dance in Classical and Christian Antiquity", University of Toronto Press, 1986. ISBN 0-8020-2553-6
- Velasquez, Susan McNeal, "Beyond Intellect: Journey Into the Wisdom of Your Intuitive Mind", Row Your Boat Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9796410-0-8
- Freduci Philomathis, "What is this thing called wisdom?", Journal Behind the State of the Art, Maybell, Colorado, 2006
- E. F. Schumacher, "Small is Beautiful", Harper and Row, New York, New York, 1989.
- Sternberg, Robert J., Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins, and Development (1990). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36718-9 [importance?]
- Conover, Sarah and Wahl, Valerie, "Kindness: A Treasury of Buddhist Wisdom for Children and Parents (This Little Light of Mine)", Skinner House Books, 2010. ISBN 978-1-55896-568-3
External links
- Wisdom at PhilPapers
- Wisdom at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
- Wisdom entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Atlas of Wisdom: Wisdom in Psychology and Spirituality
- From Knowledge to Wisdom
- Where is the Wisdom We have Lost in Knowledge?
- Wisdom in Perspective
- Ancient texts
- Hermetic scriptures
- Tiny Buddha wisdom quotes
- Occult/world scriptures
- Wisdom: The Interval Between the Notes
- John-uebersax.com, Wisdom Lexicon Project
- Who is Wisdom in Proverbs 8?
Resources
- Book on Wisdom from psychologist Paul Baltes
- The Wisdom Page
- Share Your Wisdom Here
- The Defining Wisdom Project of the University of Chicago
