関: Datura stramonium、jimson weed

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/01/21 16:04:44」(JST)

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Datura stramonium, known by the common names jimsonweed or Devil's snare, is a plant in the nightshade family. It is believed to have originated in Mexico,^[2] but has now become naturalized in many other regions.^[3]^[4]^[5] Other common names for D. stramonium include thornapple and moon flower,^[6] and it has the Spanish name toloache.^[7] Other names for the plant include hell's bells, devil’s trumpet, devil’s weed, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, locoweed, pricklyburr, and devil’s cucumber.^[8]

Datura has been used in traditional medicine to relieve asthma symptoms and as an analgesic during surgery or bonesetting. It is also a powerful hallucinogen and deliriant, which is used entheogenically for the intense visions it produces. However, the tropane alkaloids responsible for both the medicinal and hallucinogenic properties are fatally toxic in only slightly higher amounts than the medicinal dosage, and careless use often results in hospitalizations and deaths.

Description

Datura stramonium is a foul-smelling, erect, annual, freely branching herb that forms a bush up to 60 to 150 cm (2 to 5 ft) tall.^[9]^[10]^[11]

The root is long, thick, fibrous and white. The stem is stout, erect, leafy, smooth, and pale yellow-green. The stem forks off repeatedly into branches, and each fork forms a leaf and a single, erect flower.^[11]

The leaves are about 8 to 20 cm (3–8 in) long, smooth, toothed,^[10] soft, and irregularly undulated.^[11] The upper surface of the leaves is a darker green, and the bottom is a light green.^[10] The leaves have a bitter and nauseating taste, which is imparted to extracts of the herb, and remains even after the leaves have been dried.^[12]

Datura stramonium generally flowers throughout the summer. The fragrant flowers are trumpet-shaped, white to creamy or violet, and 6 to 9 cm (2 ¹⁄₂–3 ¹⁄₂ in) long, and grow on short stems from either the axils of the leaves or the places where the branches fork. The calyx is long and tubular, swollen at the bottom, and sharply angled, surmounted by five sharp teeth. The corolla, which is folded and only partially open, is white, funnel-shaped, and has prominent ribs. The flowers open at night, emitting a pleasant fragrance, and are fed upon by nocturnal moths.^[11]

The egg-shaped seed capsule is 3 to 8 cm (1–3 in) in diameter and either covered with spines or bald. At maturity, it splits into four chambers, each with dozens of small, black seeds.^[11]

Fruits and seeds – MHNT

Range and habitat

Datura stramonium is native to North America, but was spread to the Old World early. It was scientifically described and named by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1753, although it had been described a century earlier by botanists such as Nicholas Culpeper.^[13] Today, it grows wild in all the world's warm and moderate regions, where it is found along roadsides and at dung-rich livestock enclosures.^[14]^[15]^[16] In Europe, it is found as a weed on wastelands and in garbage dumps.^[14]

The seed is thought^{[by whom?]} to be carried by birds and spread in their droppings. Its seeds can lie dormant underground for years and germinate when the soil is disturbed. People who discover it growing in their gardens, and are worried about its toxicity, have been advised^{[by whom?]} to dig it up or have it otherwise removed.^[17]

Toxicity

All parts of Datura plants contain dangerous levels of the tropane alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, which are classified as deliriants, or anticholinergics. The risk of fatal overdose is high among uninformed users, and many hospitalizations occur amongst recreational users who ingest the plant for its psychoactive effects.^[14]^[18]

The amount of toxins varies widely from plant to plant. As much as a 5:1 variation can be found between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions.^[14] Additionally, within a given datura plant, toxin concentration varies by part and even from leaf to leaf. When the plant is younger, the ratio of scopolamine to atropine is about 3:1; after flowering, this ratio is reversed, with the amount of scopolamine continuing to decrease as the plant gets older.^[19] In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm.^[14] An individual datura seed contains about 0.1 mg of atropine, and the approximate fatal dose for adult humans is >10 mg atropine or >2–4 mg scopolamine.^[20]

Datura intoxication typically produces delirium (as contrasted to hallucination), hyperthermia, tachycardia, bizarre behavior, and severe mydriasis with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. Pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect.^[21] The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last as long as two weeks.^[22]

As with other cases of anticholinergic poisoning, intravenous physostigmine can be administered in severe cases as an antidote.^[23]

Use in traditional medicine

D. stramonium var. tatula, flower (front)

In Ayurveda, datura has long been used for asthma symptoms. The active agent is atropine. The leaves are generally smoked either in a cigarette or a pipe. During the late 18th century, James Anderson, the English Physician General of the East India Company, learned of the practice and popularized it in Europe.^[24]^[25]

John Gerard's Herball (1597) states,

[T]he juice of Thornapple, boiled with hog's grease, cureth all inflammations whatsoever, all manner of burnings and scaldings, as well of fire, water, boiling lead, gunpowder, as that which comes by lightning and that in very short time, as myself have found in daily practice, to my great credit and profit.^[26]

The Zuni people once used datura as an analgesic to render patients unconscious while broken bones were set.^[27] The Chinese also used it as a form of anesthesia during surgery.^[28]

Spiritual uses

Datura seedpod, opening up to release seeds inside

The ancient inhabitants of what is today central and southern California used to ingest the small black seeds of datura to "commune with deities through visions".^[29] Across the Americas, other indigenous peoples such as the Algonquin, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante also used this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.^[30]^[31]^[32] In Ethiopia, some students and debtrawoch (lay priests), use D. stramonium to "open the mind" to be more receptive to learning, and creative and imaginative thinking.^[33]

In his book, The Serpent and the Rainbow, Wade Davis identified D. stramonium, called "zombi cucumber" in Haiti, as a central ingredient of the concoction vodou priests use to create zombies.^[34]^[35]

The common name "datura" has its roots in India, where the plant is considered particularly sacred—believed to be a favorite of Nataraja in Shaivism.^[25]

Cultivation

Datura prefers rich, calcareous soil. Adding nitrogen fertilizer to the soil will increase the concentration of alkaloids present in the plant. Datura can be grown from seed, which is sown with several feet between plants. Datura is sensitive to frost, so should be sheltered during cold weather. The plant is harvested when the fruits are ripe, but still green. To harvest, the entire plant is cut down, the leaves are stripped from the plant, and everything is left to dry. When the fruits begin to burst open, the seeds are harvested. For intensive plantations, leaf yields of 1,100 to 1,700 kilograms per hectare (1,000 to 1,500 lb/acre) and seed yields of 780 kg/ha (700 lb/acre) are possible.^[36]

Etymology

The genus name is derived from the plant's Hindi name धतूरा dhatūra. Stramonium is originally from Greek στρύχνος "nightshade" and μανιακός "mad".^[37]

In the United States, the plant is called "jimsonweed", or more rarely "Jamestown weed"; it got this name from the town of Jamestown, Virginia, where British soldiers consumed it while attempting to suppress Bacon's Rebellion. They spent 11 days in altered mental states:

The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call'd) is supposed to be one of the greatest coolers in the world. This being an early plant, was gather'd very young for a boil'd salad, by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebellion of Bacon (1676); and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows [grimaces] at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll.

In this frantic condition they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves—though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements, if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed.

— Robert Beverley, Jr., The History and Present State of Virginia, Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither, 1705^[38]

References

^ The Plant List, Datura stramonium L.
^ Flora of China, 曼陀罗 man tuo luo Datura stramonium Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 179. 1753.
^ "Datura stramonium information from NPGS/GRIN". Retrieved 2008-02-05.
^ Biota of North America Program, 2014 county distribution map
^ Atlas of Living Australia, Datura stramonium L., Common Thornapple
^ "Jimsonweed". University of Texas El Paso / Austin Cooperative Pharmacy Program & Paso del Norte Health Foundation. Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
^ "Detailed Information: Jimsonweed". University of Texas El Paso / Austin Cooperative Pharmacy Program & Paso del Norte Health Foundation. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
^ "Thorn-apple, Datura stramonium - Flowers - NatureGate". luontoportti.com.
^ Stace, Clive (1997). New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press. p. 532. ISBN 0-521-65315-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c Henkel, Alice (1911). "Jimson weed". American Medicinal Leaves and Herbs. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 30.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2. Dover Publications. p. 804. ISBN 9780486227993.
^ Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2. Dover Publications. p. 805. ISBN 9780486227993.
^ Culpeper, Nicholas (1653), Culpeper's Complete Herbal, Slough: W Foulsham & Co Ltd, pp. 368–369, ISBN 0-572-00203-3
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Preissel, Ulrike & Hans-Georg Preissel (2002). Brugmansia and Datura: Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples. Firefly Books. pp. 124–125. ISBN 1-55209-598-3.
^ Veblen, K.E. (2012). "Savanna glade hotspots: Plant community development and synergy with large herbivores". Journal of Arid Environments. 78: 119–127. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.016.
^ Oudhia P., Tripathi R.S.(1998).Allelopathic potential of Datura stramonium L.. Crop. Res. 16 (1) : 37-40.
^ "Pensioner finds deadly tropical plant made famous in Harry Potter book in her back garden". Mail Online.
^ AJ Giannini,Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Corporation, pp.48-51. ISBN 1-57066-053-0.
^ Nellis, David W. (1997). Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press. p. 237. ISBN 9781561641116.
^ Arnett AM (December 1995). "Jimson Weed (Datura stramonium) poisoning". Clinical Toxicology Review. 18 (3).
^ Freye, Enno (21 September 2009). Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs. Springer Netherlands. pp. 217–218. ISBN 978-90-481-2447-3.
^ Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 9780195370010.
^ Goldfrank, Lewis R.; Flommenbaum, Neil (2006). Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 677. ISBN 9780071479141.
^ Barceloux, Donald G. (2008). "Cascara". Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1877. ISBN 9781118382769.
^ ^a ^b Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780195370010.
^ Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2.
^ Turner, Matt W. (2009). Remarkable Plants of Texas: Uncommon Accounts of Our Common Natives. University of Texas Press. p. 209. ISBN 9780292718517.
^ Nellis, David W. (1997). Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press. p. 238. ISBN 9781561641116.
^ Austin, Alfredo Lopez et al. (2005). Mexico's Indigenous Past. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780806137230.
^ Biaggioni, Italo et al. (2011). Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System. Academic Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780123865250.
^ Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9780195370010.
^ Davis, Wade (1997). The Serpent and the Rainbow: a Harvard scientist's astonishing journey into the secret societies of Haitian voodoo, zombis and magic. Simon & Schuster. p. ^{[page needed]}. ISBN 9780684839295.
^ Molvaer, Reidulf Knut (1995). Socialization and Social Control in Ethiopia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 259. ISBN 9783447036627.
^ Clairvius Narcisse
^ Davis, Wade (1985), The Serpent and the Rainbow, New York: Simon & Schuster
^ Chopra, I.C. (2006). Indigenous Drugs of India. Academic Publishers. p. 143. ISBN 9788185086804.
^ "Datura species". Plants Poisonous to Livestock. Cornell University Department of Animal Science. Retrieved 2010-02-12.
^ Beverley, Robert. "Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither". The History and Present State of Virginia, In Four Parts. University of North Carolina. p. 24 (Book II). Retrieved 2008-12-15.

External links

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Profile: Datura stramonium L.
USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN): Datura stramonium L.
Datura stramonium at Liber Herbarum II
Datura spp. at Erowid
Datura stramonium Pictures and information

UpToDate Contents

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1. 抗コリン剤中毒 anticholinergic poisoning
2. Potentially toxic plant ingestions in children: Clinical manifestations and evaluation
3. Toxic plant ingestions and nicotine poisoning in children: Management
4. 慢性閉塞性肺疾患（COPD）における抗コリン療法の役割 role of anticholinergic therapy in copd
5. 小児における急性発症性精神病の救急外来による評価 emergency department evaluation of acute onset psychosis in children

English Journal

Enantiomeric determination and evaluation of the racemization process of atropine in Solanaceae seeds and contaminated samples by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Marín-Sáez J1, Romero-González R1, Garrido Frenich A2.
Journal of chromatography. A.J Chromatogr A.2016 Nov 25;1474:79-84. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.10.047. Epub 2016 Oct 19.
A new method has been developed for the enantioselective separation of (-) and (+) hyoscyamine in Solanaceaes seeds and contaminated buckwheat. Chromatographic separation was optimized, evaluating two chiral columns, Chirobiotic V and Chiralpal-AY3. Better resolution was obtained using a Chiralpak-A
PMID 27773388

Phytoextraction of heavy metals by potential native plants and their microscopic observation of root growing on stabilised distillery sludge as a prospective tool for in situ phytoremediation of industrial waste.

Chandra R1,2, Kumar V3.
Environmental science and pollution research international.Environ Sci Pollut Res Int.2016 Nov 8. [Epub ahead of print]
The safe disposal of post-methanated distillery sludge (PMDS) in the environment is challenging due to high concentrations of heavy metals along with other complex organic pollutants. The study has revealed that PMDS contained high amounts of Fe (2403), Zn (210), Mn (126), Cu (73.62), Cr (21.825), P
PMID 27826829

Herbal Highs: Review on psychoactive effects and neuropharmacology.

Graziano S, Orsolini L, Rotolo MC, Tittarelli R, Schifano F1, Pichini S.
Current neuropharmacology.Curr Neuropharmacol.2016 Oct 31. [Epub ahead of print]
BACKGROUND: A new trend among users of new psychoactive substances' the consumption of "herbal highs": plant parts containing psychoactive substances. Most of the substances extracted from herbs, in old centuries were at the centre of religious ceremonies of ancient civilizations. Currently, these h
PMID 27799032

Japanese Journal

Lectin-binding sites in epithelial cells of the mouse prostate gland

SAKUDA Kentaro,YOSHIDA Ayaka,MURAGISHI Ryoki,YOSHINAGA Kazuya
Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica 91(4), 91-95, 2015
… Basal cells expressed GlcNAc and fucose, and reacted with Datura stramonium lectin and Aleuria aurantia lectin in all lobes. …
NAID 130005070820

Histological and Lectin Histochemical Studies on the Olfactory and Respiratory Mucosae of the Sheep

IBRAHIM Dalia,NAKAMUTA Nobuaki,TANIGUCHI Kazumi,YAMAMOTO Yoshio,TANIGUCHI Kazuyuki
Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 76(3), 339-346, 2014
… free border of both of the olfactory and respiratory epithelia was stained with 12 lectins: Wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), succinylated-wheat germ agglutinin (s-WGA), Lycopersicon esculentum lectin (LEL), Solanum tuberosum lectin (STL), Datura stramonium lectin (DSL), Soybean agglutinin (SBA), Bandeiraea simplicifolia lectin-I (BSL-I), Ricinus communis agglutinin-I (RCA-120), Erythrina cristagalli lectin (ECL), Concanavalin A (Con A), Phaseolus vulgaris agglutinin-E (PHA-E) and …
NAID 130003382375

Geographic association and temporal variation of chemical and physical defense and leaf damage in Datura stramonium

CASTILLO Guillermo,CRUZ Laura L.,HERNANDEZ-CUMPLIDO Johnattan,OYAMA Ken,FLORES-ORTIZ Cesar Mateo,FORNONI Juan,VALVERDE Pedro L.,NUNEZ-FARFAN Juan
Ecological research 28(4), 663-672, 2013-07-01
NAID 10031190108

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「シロバナヨウシュチョウセンアサガオ」「jimson weed」
拡張検索	「Datura stramonium」

「シロバナヨウシュチョウセンアサガオ」

Jimson weed
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Asterids
Order:	Solanales
Family:	Solanaceae
Genus:	Datura
Species:	D. stramonium
Binomial name
	Datura stramonium; L.
Synonyms
	Synonymy Datura bernhardii Lundstr.; Datura bertolonii Parl. ex Guss.; Datura cabanesii P.Fourn.; Datura capensis Bernh.; Datura ferocissima Cabanès & P.Fourn.; Datura ferox Nees 1834 not L. 1756; Datura hybrida Ten.; Datura inermis Juss. ex Jacq.; Datura laevis L.f.; Datura loricata Sieber ex Bernh.; Datura lurida Salisb.; Datura microcarpa Godr.; Datura muricata Godr. 1873 not Bernh. 1818 nor Link 1821; Datura parviflora Salisb.; Datura praecox Godr.; Datura pseudostramonium Sieber ex Bernh.; Datura tatula L.; Datura wallichii Dunal; Stramonium foetidum Scop.; Stramonium laeve Moench; Stramonium spinosum Lam.; Stramonium tatula Moench; Stramonium vulgare Moench; Stramonium vulgatum Gaertn.;

　　[★]

英: jimson weed、stramonium、Datura stramonium
関: ヨウシュチョウセンアサガオ、ダチュラ

-stramonium

「jimson weed」

　　[★]

シロバナヨウシュチョウセンアサガオ

関: Datura stramonium、stramonium

「Datura stramonium」

　　[★]

シロバナヨウシュチョウセンアサガオ、ヨウシュチョウセンアサガオ、ダチュラ

関: Datura、jimson weed、stramonium

[1] The Plant List, Datura stramonium L.

[2] Flora of China, 曼陀罗 man tuo luo Datura stramonium Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 179. 1753.

[NPGS.2FGRIN-3] "Datura stramonium information from NPGS/GRIN". Retrieved 2008-02-05.

[4] Biota of North America Program, 2014 county distribution map

[5] Atlas of Living Australia, Datura stramonium L., Common Thornapple

[6] "Jimsonweed". University of Texas El Paso / Austin Cooperative Pharmacy Program & Paso del Norte Health Foundation. Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-13.

[7] "Detailed Information: Jimsonweed". University of Texas El Paso / Austin Cooperative Pharmacy Program & Paso del Norte Health Foundation. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-13.

[8] "Thorn-apple, Datura stramonium - Flowers - NatureGate". luontoportti.com.

[Stace-9] Stace, Clive (1997). New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press. p. 532. ISBN 0-521-65315-0.

[Henkel-1911-p30-10] Henkel, Alice (1911). "Jimson weed". American Medicinal Leaves and Herbs. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 30.

[maud-desc-11] Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2. Dover Publications. p. 804. ISBN 9780486227993.

[12] Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2. Dover Publications. p. 805. ISBN 9780486227993.

[13] Culpeper, Nicholas (1653), Culpeper's Complete Herbal, Slough: W Foulsham & Co Ltd, pp. 368–369, ISBN 0-572-00203-3

[Preissel-14] Preissel, Ulrike & Hans-Georg Preissel (2002). Brugmansia and Datura: Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples. Firefly Books. pp. 124–125. ISBN 1-55209-598-3.

[15] Veblen, K.E. (2012). "Savanna glade hotspots: Plant community development and synergy with large herbivores". Journal of Arid Environments. 78: 119–127. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.016.

[16] Oudhia P., Tripathi R.S.(1998).Allelopathic potential of Datura stramonium L.. Crop. Res. 16 (1) : 37-40.

[datura-17] "Pensioner finds deadly tropical plant made famous in Harry Potter book in her back garden". Mail Online.

[18] AJ Giannini,Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Corporation, pp.48-51. ISBN 1-57066-053-0.

[19] Nellis, David W. (1997). Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press. p. 237. ISBN 9781561641116.

[20] Arnett AM (December 1995). "Jimson Weed (Datura stramonium) poisoning". Clinical Toxicology Review. 18 (3).

[Freye-21] Freye, Enno (21 September 2009). Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs. Springer Netherlands. pp. 217–218. ISBN 978-90-481-2447-3.

[22] Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 9780195370010.

[23] Goldfrank, Lewis R.; Flommenbaum, Neil (2006). Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 677. ISBN 9780071479141.

[24] Barceloux, Donald G. (2008). "Cascara". Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1877. ISBN 9781118382769.

[Pennachio-2010-p6-25] Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780195370010.

[26] Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2.

[27] Turner, Matt W. (2009). Remarkable Plants of Texas: Uncommon Accounts of Our Common Natives. University of Texas Press. p. 209. ISBN 9780292718517.

[Nellis-1997-p238-28] Nellis, David W. (1997). Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press. p. 238. ISBN 9781561641116.

[29] Austin, Alfredo Lopez et al. (2005). Mexico's Indigenous Past. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780806137230.

[Biaggioni-2011-p77-30] Biaggioni, Italo et al. (2011). Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System. Academic Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780123865250.

[Pennachio-2010-pp82-83-31] Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9780195370010.

[32] Davis, Wade (1997). The Serpent and the Rainbow: a Harvard scientist's astonishing journey into the secret societies of Haitian voodoo, zombis and magic. Simon & Schuster. p. ^{[page needed]}. ISBN 9780684839295.

[33] Molvaer, Reidulf Knut (1995). Socialization and Social Control in Ethiopia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 259. ISBN 9783447036627.

[34] Clairvius Narcisse

[35] Davis, Wade (1985), The Serpent and the Rainbow, New York: Simon & Schuster

[36] Chopra, I.C. (2006). Indigenous Drugs of India. Academic Publishers. p. 143. ISBN 9788185086804.

[Cornell-37] "Datura species". Plants Poisonous to Livestock. Cornell University Department of Animal Science. Retrieved 2010-02-12.

[Beverley-38] Beverley, Robert. "Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither". The History and Present State of Virginia, In Four Parts. University of North Carolina. p. 24 (Book II). Retrieved 2008-12-15.

v t e Witchcraft and magic

Types	African witchcraft Vodun Witch smeller Asian witchcraft Kulam Onmyōdō Australasian witchcraft Makutu European witchcraft Akelarre Benandanti Brujería Cunning folk Seiðr Völva White witch Witch-cult hypothesis North American witchcraft 21 Divisiones Granny woman Hoodoo Huna Pow-wow Santería Vodou Voodoo South American witchcraft Candomblé Contemporary witchcraft Feri Tradition Kitchen witchcraft Stregheria Wicca

Practices	Animism Black mass Black magic Coven Demon Divination Entheogen Evocation Familiar spirit Flying ointment Invocation Jinn Magic Magic circle Necromancy Occultism Poppet Potions Prayer Satanic ritual abuse Satanism Shamanism Sigils Spiritism Spiritualism Witch ball Witch's ladder Witches' Sabbath

Objects	Amulet Broom Cloak of invisibility Magic carpet Magic ring Magic sword Talisman Wand

Folklore and mythology	Agamede Aradia Baba Yaga Daayan Drude Elbow witch Huld Kalku Hecate Circe Medea Muma Pădurii Obayifo Sea witch Sorginak Spearfinger Three Witches Witch of Endor

Major historic treatises	Formicarius (1475) Summis desiderantes affectibus (1484) Malleus Maleficarum (1487) The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) Daemonologie (1597) The Discovery of Witches (1647) Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c. (1751)

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stramonium