ケイ素、硅素、珪素、(多くはシリコン樹脂の意味=silicone)シリコン

関: Si

WordNet

a tetravalent nonmetallic element; next to oxygen it is the most abundant element in the earths crust; occurs in clay and feldspar and granite and quartz and sand; used as a semiconductor in transistors (同)Si, atomic number 14
any of a large class of siloxanes that are unusually stable over a wide range of temperatures; used in lubricants and adhesives and coatings and synthetic rubber and electrical insulation (同)silicone polymer
an extremely hard blue-black crystalline compound (SiC) used as an abrasive and a heat refractory material; crystals of silicon carbide can be used as semiconductors
a bronze with 2-3% silicon that is resistant to corrosion
a polymeric silicone compound

PrepTutorEJDIC

ケイ素(非金属元素;化学記号はSi)
シリコーン(ケイ素と酸素の化合物で接着剤・潤滑械・人造ゴムなどに用いる)
siliconの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/06/09 05:50:24」(JST)

wiki ja

[Wiki ja表示]

「シリコン」はこの項目へ転送されています。ケイ素を構造に含む樹脂については「シリコーン」をご覧ください。

ケイ素（ケイそ、珪素、硅素、英: silicon、羅: silicium）は、原子番号14の元素である。元素記号は Si。「珪素」「硅素」「シリコン」とも表記・呼称される。地球の主要な構成元素のひとつ。半導体部品は非常に重要な用途である。

常温・常圧で安定な結晶構造は、ダイヤモンド構造。比重は2.33、融点1410 °C (1420 °C)、沸点は2600 °C（他に2355 °C、3280 °Cという実験値あり）。ダイヤモンド構造のケイ素は、1.12 eVのバンドギャップ（実験値）をもつ半導体である。これは非金属であるが、圧力（静水圧）を加えるとβスズ構造に構造相転移する。このβスズ構造のケイ素は金属である。周期表においてすぐ上の元素は炭素だが、その常温常圧での安定相であるグラファイト構造は、ケイ素においては安定な構造として存在できない。

歴史

1787年にアントワーヌ・ラヴォワジエがはじめて元素として記載し、ラテン語で「燧石」を意味する "silex"・"silicis" にちなみ "silicon" と命名。だがラヴォワジエは燧石そのものを元素だと思っており、1800年になってハンフリー・デービーにより化合物と判明したことからこれは否定された。1823年にイェンス・ベルセリウスが四フッ化ケイ素とカリウムを加熱して単離に成功した。しかし、それ以前の1811年、ジョセフ・ルイ・ゲイ＝リュサックとルイ・テナールが同様の方法でアモルファスシリコンの分離に成功したと考えられている。

概要

地殻中に大量に存在するため鉱物の構成要素として重要であり、ケイ酸塩鉱物として大きなグループを形成している。これには Si-O-Si 結合の多様性を反映したさまざまな鉱物が含まれている。しかしながら生物とのかかわりは薄く、知られているのは、放散虫・珪藻・シダ植物・イネ科植物などにおいて二酸化ケイ素のかたちでの骨格への利用に留まる。栄養素としての必要性はあまり判っていない。炭素とケイ素との化学的な類似から、SF などではケイ素を主要な構成物質とするケイ素生物が想定される事がある。

バンドギャップが常温付近で利用するために適当な大きさであること、ホウ素やリンなどの不純物を微量添加させることにより、p型半導体、n型半導体のいずれにもなることなどから、電子工学上重要な元素である。半導体部品として利用するためには高純度である必要があり、このため精製技術が盛んに研究されてきた。現在、ケイ素は99.9999999999999 % (15N^[5]) まで純度を高められる。また、Si(111) 基板はAFMやSTMの標準試料としてよく用いられる。

用途

ケイ素の単結晶

赤外光学系

ケイ素は赤外域（波長2-6 μm）で高い透過率があり、レンズや窓の素材に用いられる。波長4 μmの屈折率は3.4255^[6]。

半導体

最も重要な用途としては、四塩化ケイ素やトリクロロシランなどから作られる高純度ケイ素が半導体作成に用いられることが挙げられる。また、液晶ディスプレイの TFT や太陽電池にはアモルファスシリコンや多結晶シリコンなどが用いられる。ヒ化ガリウムや窒化ガリウムなどの化合物半導体の基板にシリコンを用いれば大幅な低価格化が可能であり、様々な研究が進められている。

ケイ素含有合金

電気炉における製鉄材料として鉄1トンあたり4 kg前後のケイ素が添加されるほか、ケイ素合金として製鉄の脱酸素剤に用いられる。そのほかに、ケイ素を混ぜた鋼板(ケイ素鋼板)は、うず電流による損失が少なくなるため、変圧器に使われている。アルミニウム工業の分野でもケイ素の合金が使われている。また、鉛レス黄銅にも添加される。

ケイ素含有セラミックス類

ケイ素の酸化物（シリカ）を原料とするガラスは、窓その他で使われるほか、繊維状にしたグラスウールは断熱材や吸音材としても用途がある。ゼオライトは、イオン交換体、吸着剤あるいは、有機化学工業における触媒ともなっている。シリカゲルとしては、非常に利用しやすい乾燥剤になる。

炭化ケイ素は、耐火材や抵抗体として使われたり、高いモース硬度 (9.5) を持つために、研磨剤として使われる。その他のケイ素化合物として、アルミノケイ酸塩が粘土に含まれ、陶器やセメント・煉瓦などセラミックスと呼ばれる材料の主成分になっているほか、カルシウム化合物を除去する働きから、水の精製に使われるなどしている。

ケイ酸塩・ケイ素樹脂

ケイ酸塩は、さまざまな形で地殻上に存在しており、天然に存在するケイ素化合物のほとんどすべてが二酸化ケイ素およびケイ酸塩である。工業的にも広く用いられ、ガラス、陶磁器など、枚挙に暇がない。アスベストは、繊維状のケイ酸塩鉱物であり、その耐薬品性や耐火性から以前は建材などに広く用いられたが、人体への悪影響が問題になったため、使用量は激減している。日本ではアスベストによる健康被害が社会問題となり、労災認定や健康被害を受けた国民に対しての補償問題、また、依然として多く残るアスベストの撤去に対しての問題を抱える。

有機基を有するケイ素二次元および三次元酸化物はシリコーンと呼ばれる。このものは、優れた耐熱性、耐薬品性、低い毒性などの有用な性質を示し、油状のものはワックス、熱媒体、消泡剤などに用いられる。三次元シリコーンはゴム弾性を示し、ゴム状のものはホースやチューブ、樹脂状のものは塗料や絶縁材、接着剤など各種の用途に利用される。

製法

原料

工業用ケイ素の主原料は SiO₂ から成る二酸化ケイ素（珪石、珪砂、シリカとも）である。日本国内の埋蔵量は2億トンあるとされるが、アルミニウムと同様、酸化物から還元するには大量の電力を必要とするため、金属シリコンの状態になってから輸入するのが一般的である。電力の安い国が金属シリコンの供給源となるため、これまで中国、ブラジル、ロシア、南アフリカ、ノルウェーなどが主要な供給国であったが、近年はオーストラリア、マレーシア、ベトナムなども注目されているという^[要出典]。

世界の二酸化ケイ素の埋蔵量は極めて潤沢であり、高純度のものも世界に広く分布する^[7]。二酸化ケイ素#埋蔵量を参照。

精製

金属グレード (MG) シリコン: ケイ素の単体はカーボン電極を使用したアーク炉を用いて、二酸化ケイ素を還元して得る。この際、精製されたケイ素は純度99%程度のものである。

SiO₂ + C → Si + CO₂

SiO₂ + 2 C → Si + 2 CO

高純度ポリシリコン: さらに純度を高めるには、塩素と反応させ四塩化ケイ素とし（ガス化）、これを蒸留して純度の高い製品を得る。

Si + 2 Cl₂ → SiCl₄

SiCl₄ + 2 H₂ → Si + 4 HCl

半導体グレード (SEG) シリコン

集積回路など半導体素子に使用する超高純度のケイ素（純度 11N 以上）は、上記の高純度シリコンからさらに FZ（フローティングゾーン）法などのゾーンメルティングや Cz（チョクラルスキー）法などの単結晶成長法による析出工程を経ることで製造される。ゾーンメルト法では融解帯に不純物が濃縮する過程を繰り返すことで高純度のケイ素を得る。Cz 法においては偏析を利用して高純度化するため、原料であるポリシリコン（多結晶珪素）には非常に純度の高いものが要求される。半導体に利用するには基本的に結晶欠陥（転位）のない単結晶が必要なので、FZ 法においても Cz 法においても単結晶を回転させながら一旦細くし、転位を外に追い出した段階で結晶の径を大きくすることにより所定の大きさの結晶を得る。FZ 法は大口径化に向かないため、産業用に使用されているシリコンウェーハの大部分は Cz 法によって製造されている。現在製品化されているシリコンウェーハの径は直径300 mmまでである。

太陽電池グレード (SOG) シリコン

太陽電池には SEG グレードほどの超高純度は必要なく、7N 程度の純度で済み、また多結晶でも良い。このため上記の単結晶シリコンインゴットの端材などが原料に利用されてきたが、需要の増大に伴い、専用の太陽電池グレード（ソーラーグレード）シリコンの生産法が開発されている。手順としては上記の半導体グレードの精製工程を簡略化した方法のほか、下記のような手法が用いられる。半導体グレードに比べ、使用するエネルギーやコストが数分の1以下になるとされる手法が多い（ソーラーグレードシリコンを参照）。

流動床炉 (FBR) 法：種結晶を気流で巻き上げながら、表面にシリコンを析出させる。
冶金法：金属グレードシリコンから冶金学的手法によって直接ソーラーグレードシリコンを製造する。
水ガラス化法：珪石 (SiO₂) を水ガラス化した状態で高純度化してから還元する。
NEDO溶融精製法：金属グレードシリコンを電子ビームやプラズマで溶融させて特定の不純物を除いたあと、一方向凝固させる。

ソーラーグレードシリコンは2006年頃には高純度シリコン市場の約半分を占め、今後もその割合は拡大すると見られている^[8]。今後はソーラーグレードが高純度シリコン生産量の大部分を占め、半導体級は特殊品になっていくと予測されている^[9]。また太陽電池用シリコン原料は2008年までは供給の逼迫で価格が高止まりしていたが、2009年からは価格の低下が予測されている^[10]。

ケイ素化合物

一酸化ケイ素 (SiO)
二酸化ケイ素 (SiO₂) - 石英など
ケイ酸
窒化ケイ素 (Si₃N₄)
炭化ケイ素 (SiC)
ケイ酸塩 (MgSiO₃ など)
四塩化ケイ素 (SiCl₄) - 煙幕
シラン (SiH₄)
シリコーン
ケイ素樹脂
環状シロキサン (D3, D4 など)
有機ケイ素化合物 - トリメチルシリル基 (-Si(CH₃)₃) などを有する有機化合物。保護基や脱離基として有機合成に汎用されている。

同位体

詳細は「ケイ素の同位体」を参照

脚注

[ヘルプ]

^ T. Michael Duncan, Jeffrey Allen Reimer, Chemical engineering design and analysis: an introduction, p. 25, Cambridge University Press, 1998 ISBN 0521639565
^ R. S. Ram et al. "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" J. Mol. Spectr. 190, 341–352 (1998)
^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Si
^ 「9」(Nine)が15個並ぶことを意味する略称。
^ 岸川利郎 (1990). ユーザーエンジニアのための光学入門. オプトロニクス. ISBN 4-900474-30-4.
^ SAND AND GRAVEL(INDUSTRIAL), アメリカ地質調査所
^ Wacker Polysilicon: Expansion Announcement June 2006（Wacker 社による生産量拡大のアナウンス資料）
^ 河本洋、奥和田久美、高純度シリコン原料技術の開発動向(科学技術政策研究所)
^ New Energy Finance Predicts 43% Solar Silicon Price Drop, greentechmedia, 18 August 2008

参考文献

SOG 製法
- 山田興一・小宮山宏「太陽光発電工学」ISBN 4-8222-8148-5
- 小長井誠「薄膜太陽電池の基礎と応用」ISBN 4-274-94263-5
SEG 製法シリコンウェーハ
- 志村史夫「半導体シリコン結晶工学」ISBN 4-621-03876-1

外部リンク

ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ケイ素に関連するメディアがあります。

ウィクショナリーにケイ素の項目があります。

珪素 - 「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報（国立健康・栄養研究所）
国際化学物質安全性カードケイ素 - 国立医薬品食品衛生研究所

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a tetravalent metalloid, less reactive than its chemical analog carbon, the nonmetal directly above it in the periodic table, but more reactive than germanium, the metalloid directly below it in the table. Controversy about silicon's character dates to its discovery; it was first prepared and characterized in pure form in 1823. In 1808, it was given the name silicium (from Latin: silex, hard stone or flint), with an -ium word-ending to suggest a metal, a name which the element retains in several non-English languages. However, its final English name, first suggested in 1817, reflects the more physically similar elements carbon and boron.

Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after oxygen.^[7]

Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and indeed often with little processing of compounds from nature. These include direct industrial building-use of clays, silica sand and stone. Silica is used in ceramic brick. Silicate goes into Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and when combined with silica sand and gravel, to make concrete. Silicates are also in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass. More modern silicon compounds such as silicon carbide form abrasives and high-strength ceramics. Silicon is the basis of the ubiquitous synthetic silicon-based polymers called silicones.

Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern world economy. Although most free silicon is used in the steel refining, aluminium-casting, and fine chemical industries (often to make fumed silica), the relatively small portion of very highly purified silicon that is used in semiconductor electronics (< 10%) is perhaps even more critical. Because of wide use of silicon in integrated circuits, the basis of most computers, a great deal of modern technology depends on it.

Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be required by animals.^[8] However, various sea sponges as well as microorganisms like diatoms and radiolaria secrete skeletal structures made of silica. Silica is often deposited in plant tissues, such as in the bark and wood of Chrysobalanaceae and the silica cells and silicified trichomes of Cannabis sativa, horsetails and many grasses.^[9]

1 Characteristics
- 1.1 Physical
- 1.2 Chemical
- 1.3 Isotopes
- 1.4 Occurrence
2 Production
- 2.1 Alloys
- 2.2 Metallurgical grade
- 2.3 Electronic grade
3 Compounds
4 History
5 Applications
- 5.1 Compounds
- 5.2 Alloys
- 5.3 Electronics
6 Biological role
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links

Characteristics

Physical

Silicon crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure

Silicon is a solid at room temperature, with relatively high melting and boiling points of 1414 and 3265 °C, respectively. It has a greater density in a liquid state than a solid state. It does not contract when it freezes like most substances, but expands, similar to how ice is less dense than water. With a relatively high thermal conductivity of 149 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, silicon conducts heat well and as a result is not often used to insulate hot objects.

In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color and a metallic luster. Like germanium, silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure, with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710 nm (5.430710 Å).^[10]

The outer electron orbital of silicon, like that of carbon, has four valence electrons. The 1s, 2s, 2p and 3s subshells are completely filled while the 3p subshell contains two electrons out of a possible six.

Silicon is a semiconductor. It has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, since the number of free charge carriers increases with temperature. The electrical resistance of single crystal silicon significantly changes under the application of mechanical stress due to the piezoresistive effect.^[11]

Chemical

Silicon powder

Silicon is a metalloid, readily either donating or sharing its four outer electrons, allowing for many forms of chemical bonding. Like carbon, it typically forms four bonds. Unlike carbon, it can accept additional electrons and form five or six bonds in a sometimes more labile silicate form. Tetra-valent silicon is relatively inert, but still reacts with halogens and dilute alkalis, but most acids (except for some hyper-reactive combinations of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) have no known effect on it. However, having four bonding electrons gives it, like carbon, many opportunities to combine with other elements or compounds in the right circumstances.

Isotopes

Naturally occurring silicon is composed of three stable isotopes, silicon-28, silicon-29, and silicon-30, with silicon-28 being the most abundant (92% natural abundance).^[12] Out of these, only silicon-29 is of use in NMR and EPR spectroscopy.^[13] Twenty radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being silicon-32 with a half-life of 170 years, and silicon-31 with a half-life of 157.3 minutes.^[12] All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than seven seconds, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than one tenth of a second.^[12] Silicon does not have any known nuclear isomers.^[12]

The isotopes of silicon range in mass number from 22 to 44.^[12] The most common decay mode of six isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most abundant stable isotope, silicon-28, is β+, primarily forming aluminium isotopes (13 protons) as decay products.^[12] The most common decay mode(s) for 16 isotopes with mass numbers higher than silicon-28 is β−, primarily forming phosphorus isotopes (15 protons) as decay products.^[12]

Occurrence

Quartz crystal cluster from Tibet. The naturally occurring mineral is a network solid with the formula SiO₂.

Measured by mass, silicon makes up 27.7% of the Earth's crust and is the second most abundant element in the crust, with only oxygen having a greater abundance.^[14] Silicon is usually found in the form of complex silicate minerals, and less often as silicon dioxide (silica, a major component of common sand). Pure silicon crystals are very rarely found in nature.

The silicate minerals—various minerals containing silicon, oxygen and reactive metals—account for 90% of the mass of the Earth's crust. This is due to the fact that at the high temperatures characteristic of the formation of the inner solar system, silicon and oxygen have a great affinity for each other, forming networks of silicon and oxygen in chemical compounds of very low volatility. Since oxygen and silicon were the most common non-gaseous and non-metallic elements in the debris from supernova dust which formed the protoplanetary disk in the formation and evolution of the Solar System, they formed many complex silicates which accreted into larger rocky planetesimals that formed the terrestrial planets. Here, the reduced silicate mineral matrix entrapped the metals reactive enough to be oxidized (aluminium, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium). After loss of volatile gases, as well as carbon and sulfur via reaction with hydrogen, this silicate mixture of elements formed most of the Earth's crust. These silicates were of relatively low density with respect to iron, nickel, and other metals non-reactive to oxygen and thus a residuum of uncombined iron and nickel sank to the planet's core, leaving a thick mantle consisting mostly of magnesium and iron silicates. These are thought to be mostly silicate perovskites, followed in abundance by the magnesium/iron oxide ferropericlase.^[15]

Examples of silicate minerals in the crust include those in the pyroxene, amphibole, mica, and feldspar groups. These minerals occur in clay and various types of rock such as granite and sandstone.

Silica occurs in minerals consisting of very pure silicon dioxide in different crystalline forms, quartz, agate amethyst, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, jasper, and opal. The crystals have the empirical formula of silicon dioxide, but do not consist of separate silicon dioxide molecules in the manner of solid carbon dioxide. Rather, silica is structurally a network-solid consisting of silicon and oxygen in three-dimensional crystals, like diamond. Less pure silica forms the natural glass obsidian. Biogenic silica occurs in the structure of diatoms, radiolaria and siliceous sponges.

Silicon is also a principal component of many meteorites, and is a component of tektites, a silicate mineral of possibly lunar origin, or (if Earth-derived) which has been subjected to unusual temperatures and pressures, possibly from meteorite strike.

Production

Alloys

Ferrosilicon alloy

Ferrosilicon, an iron-silicon alloy that contains varying ratios of elemental silicon and iron, accounts for about 80% of the world's production of elemental silicon, with China, the leading supplier of elemental silicon, providing 4.6 million tonnes (or 2/3 of the world output) of silicon, most of which is in the form of ferrosilicon. It is followed by Russia (610,000 t), Norway (330,000 t), Brazil (240,000 t) and the United States (170,000 t).^[16] Ferrosilicon is primarily used by the steel industry (see below).

Aluminium-silicon alloys (called silumin alloys) are heavily used in the aluminium alloy casting industry, where silicon is the single most important additive to aluminium to improve its casting properties. Since cast aluminium is widely used in the automobile industry, this use of silicon is thus the single largest industrial use (about 55% of the total) of "metallurgical grade" pure silicon (as this purified silicon is added to pure aluminium, whereas ferrosilicon is never purified before being added to steel).^[17]

Metallurgical grade

Elemental silicon not alloyed with significant quantities of other elements, and usually > 95%, is often referred to loosely as silicon metal. It makes up about 20% of the world total elemental silicon production, with less than 1 to 2% of total elemental silicon (5–10% of metallurgical grade silicon) ever purified to higher grades for use in electronics. Metallurgical grade silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity silica with wood, charcoal, and coal in an electric arc furnace using carbon electrodes. At temperatures over 1,900 °C (3,450 °F), the carbon in the aforementioned materials and the silicon undergo the chemical reaction SiO₂ + 2 C → Si + 2 CO. Liquid silicon collects in the bottom of the furnace, which is then drained and cooled. The silicon produced in this manner is called metallurgical grade silicon and is at least 98% pure. Using this method, silicon carbide (SiC) may also form from an excess of carbon in one or both of the following ways: SiO₂ + C → SiO + CO or SiO + 2 C → SiC + CO. However, provided the concentration of SiO₂ is kept high, the silicon carbide can be eliminated by the chemical reaction 2 SiC + SiO₂ → 3 Si + 2 CO.

As noted above, metallurgical grade silicon "metal" has its primary use in the aluminium casting industry to make aluminium-silicon alloy parts. The remainder (about 45%) is used by the chemical industry, where it is primarily employed to make fumed silica, with the rest used in production of other fine chemicals such as silanes and some types of silicones.^[18]

As of September 2008, metallurgical grade silicon costs about US$1.45 per pound ($3.20/kg),^[19] up from $0.77 per pound ($1.70/kg) in 2005.^[20]

Electronic grade

Monocrystalline silicon ingot grown by the Czochralski process

The use of silicon in semiconductor devices demands a much greater purity than afforded by metallurgical grade silicon. Very pure silicon (>99.9%) can be extracted directly from solid silica or other silicon compounds by molten salt electrolysis.^[21]^[22] This method, known as early as 1854^[23] (see also FFC Cambridge process), has the potential to directly produce solar-grade silicon without any carbon dioxide emission at much lower energy consumption.

Solar grade silicon cannot be used for semiconductors, where purity must be extreme to properly control the process. Bulk silicon wafers used at the beginning of the integrated circuit making process must first be refined to a purity of 99.9999999% often referred to as "9N" for "9 nines", a process which requires repeated applications of refining technology.

The majority of silicon crystals grown for device production are produced by the Czochralski process, (CZ-Si) It was the cheapest method available. However, single crystals grown by the Czochralski process contain impurities because the crucible containing the melt often dissolves. Historically, a number of methods have been used to produce ultra-high-purity silicon.

Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact that if silicon is melted and re-solidified, the last parts of the mass to solidify contain most of the impurities. The earliest method of silicon purification, first described in 1919 and used on a limited basis to make radar components during World War II, involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then partially dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. When crushed, the silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were on the outside of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the impurity-rich silicon was the first to be dissolved when treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure product.

In zone melting, also called zone refining, the first silicon purification method to be widely used industrially, rods of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Then, the heater is slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as the silicon cools and re-solidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in the molten region rather than re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the impurities in the rod will have been moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This end is then cut off and discarded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity is desired.^[24]

A polycrystalline silicon rod made by the Siemens process

At one time, DuPont produced ultra-pure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with high-purity zinc vapors at 950 °C, producing silicon by SiCl₄ + 2 Zn → Si + 2 ZnCl₂. However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as the zinc chloride byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the Siemens process. In the Siemens process, high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at 1150 °C. The trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional silicon onto the rods, enlarging them because 2 HSiCl₃ → Si + 2 HCl + SiCl₄. Silicon produced from this and similar processes is called polycrystalline silicon. Polycrystalline silicon typically has impurity levels of less than one part per billion.^[25]^[26]^[27]

In 2006 REC announced construction of a plant based on fluidized bed (FB) technology using silane: 3 SiCl₄ + Si + 2 H₂ → 4 HSiCl₃, 4 HSiCl₃ → 3 SiCl₄ + SiH₄, SiH₄ → Si + 2 H₂.^[28] The advantage of fluid bed technology is that processes can be run continuously, yielding higher yields than Siemens Process, which is a batch process.

Today, silicon is purified by converting it to a silicon compound that can be more easily purified by distillation than in its original state, and then converting that silicon compound back into pure silicon. Trichlorosilane is the silicon compound most commonly used as the intermediate, although silicon tetrachloride and silane are also used. When these gases are blown over silicon at high temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.

In addition, there is the Schumacher process, which utilizes tribromosilane in place of trichlorosilane and fluid bed technology. It requires lower deposition temperatures, lower capital costs to build facilities and operate, no hazardous polymers nor explosive material, and produces no amorphous silicon dust waste, all of which are drawbacks of the Siemens process.^[29] However, there are yet to be any major factories built using this process.

Compounds

PDMS – a silicone compound

Silicon forms binary compounds called silicides with many metallic elements whose properties range from reactive compounds, e.g. magnesium silicide, Mg₂Si through high melting refractory compounds such as molybdenum disilicide, MoSi₂.^[30]
Silicon carbide, SiC (carborundum) is a hard, high melting solid and a well known abrasive. It may also be sintered into a type of high-strength ceramic used in armor.
Silane, SiH₄, is a pyrophoric gas with a similar tetrahedral structure to methane, CH₄. When pure, it does not react with pure water or dilute acids; however, even small amounts of alkali impurities from the laboratory glass can result in a rapid hydrolysis.^[31] There is a range of catenated silicon hydrides that form a homologous series of compounds, Si
nH
2n+2 where n = 2–8 (analogous to the alkanes). These are all readily hydrolyzed and are thermally unstable, particularly the heavier members.^[32]^[33]
Disilenes contain a silicon-silicon double bond (analogous to the alkenes) and are generally highly reactive requiring large substituent groups to stabilize them.^[34] A disilyne with a silicon-silicon triple bond was first isolated in 2004; although as the compound is non-linear, the bonding is dissimilar to that in alkynes.^[35]
Tetrahalides, SiX₄, are formed with all the halogens.^[36] Silicon tetrachloride, for example, reacts with water, unlike its carbon analogue, carbon tetrachloride.^[37] Silicon dihalides are formed by the high temperature reaction of tetrahalides and silicon; with a structure analogous to a carbene they are reactive compounds. Silicon difluoride condenses to form a polymeric compound, (SiF
2)
n.^[33]
Silicon dioxide is a high melting solid with a number of crystal forms; the most familiar of which is the mineral quartz. In quartz each silicon atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms that bridge to other silicon atoms to form a three dimensional lattice.^[37] Silica is soluble in water at high temperatures forming a range of compounds called monosilicic acid, Si(OH)₄.^[38]
Under the right conditions monosilicic acid readily polymerizes to form more complex silicic acids, ranging from the simplest condensate, disilicic acid (H₆Si₂O₇) to linear, ribbon, layer and lattice structures which form the basis of the many silicate minerals and are called polysilicic acids {Si_x(OH)_4–2x}_n.^[38]
With oxides of other elements the high temperature reaction of silicon dioxide can give a wide range of glasses with various properties.^[39] Examples include soda lime glass, borosilicate glass and lead crystal glass.
Silicon sulfide, SiS₂, is a polymeric solid (unlike its carbon analogue the liquid CS₂).^[40]
Silicon forms a nitride, Si₃N₄ which is a ceramic.^[41] Silatranes, a group of tricyclic compounds containing five-coordinate silicon, may have physiological properties.^[42]
Many transition metal complexes containing a metal-silicon bond are now known, which include complexes containing SiH
nX
3−n ligands, SiX₃ ligands, and Si(OR)₃ ligands.^[42]
Silicones are large group of polymeric compounds with an (Si-O-Si) backbone. An example is the silicone oil PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane). These polymers can be crosslinked to produce resins and elastomers.^[43]
Many organosilicon compounds are known which contain a silicon-carbon single bond. Many of these are based on a central tetrahedral silicon atom, and some are optically active when central chirality exists. Long chain polymers containing a silicon backbone are known, such as polydimethysilylene (SiMe
2)
n.^[44] Polycarbosilane, [(SiMe
2)
2CH
2]
n with a backbone containing a repeating -Si-Si-C unit, is a precursor in the production of silicon carbide fibers.^[44]

History

Attention was first drawn to silica as the possible oxide of a fundamental chemical element by Antoine Lavoisier, in 1787.^[45] After an attempt to isolate silicon in 1808, Sir Humphry Davy proposed the name "silicium" for silicon, from the Latin silex, silicis for flint, flints, and adding the "-ium" ending because he believed it was a metal.^[46] In 1811, Gay-Lussac and Thénard are thought to have prepared impure amorphous silicon, through the heating of recently isolated potassium metal with silicon tetrafluoride, but they did not purify and characterize the product, nor identify it as a new element.^[47] Silicon was given its present name in 1817 by Scottish chemist Thomas Thomson. He retained part of Davy's name but added "-on" because he believed that silicon was a nonmetal similar to boron and carbon.^[48] In 1823, Berzelius prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Gay-Lussac (potassium metal and potassium fluorosilicate), but purifying the product to a brown powder by repeatedly washing it.^[49] As a result he is usually given credit for the element's discovery.^[50]^[51]

Silicon in its more common crystalline form was not prepared until 31 years later, by Deville.^[52]^[53] By electrolyzing impure sodium-aluminium chloride containing approximately 10% silicon, he was able to obtain a slightly impure allotrope of silicon in 1854.^[54] Later, more cost-effective methods have been developed to isolate silicon in several allotrope forms, the most recent being silicene.

Because silicon is an important element in semiconductors and high-technology devices, many places in the world bear its name. For example, Silicon Valley in California, bears the element's name since it is the base for a number of computer technology-related industries. Other geographic locations with connections to the industry have since been named after silicon as well. Examples include Silicon Forest in Oregon, Silicon Hills in Austin, Texas, Silicon Saxony in Germany, Silicon Valley in India, Silicon Border in Mexicali, Mexico, Silicon Fen in Cambridge, England, Silicon Roundabout in London, Silicon Glen in Scotland, and Silicon Gorge in Bristol, England.

Applications

Compounds

Most silicon is used industrially without being separated into the element, and indeed often with comparatively little processing from natural occurrence. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, which are compounds of silicon and oxygen, often with metallic ions when charged silicate anions require cations to balance charge. Many of these have direct commercial uses, such as clays, silica sand and most kinds of building stone. Thus, the vast majority of uses for silicon are as structural compounds, either as the silicate minerals or silica (crude silicon dioxide). For example, silica is an important part of ceramic brick. Silicates are used in making Portland cement which is used in building mortar and stucco, but more importantly combined with silica sand, and gravel (usually containing silicate minerals like granite), to make the concrete that is the basis of most of the very largest industrial building projects of the modern world. ^[55]

Silicate minerals are also in whiteware ceramics, an important class of products usually containing various types of fired clay (natural aluminium silicate). An example is porcelain which is based on silicate mineral kaolinite. Ceramics include art objects, and domestic, industrial and building products. Traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass also functions in many of the same roles.

Very occasional elemental silicon is found in nature, and also naturally-occurring compounds of silicon and carbon (silicon carbide) or nitrogen (silicon nitride) are found in stardust samples or meteorites in presolar grains, but the oxidizing conditions of the inner planets of the solar system make planetary silicon compounds found there mostly silicates and silica. Free silicon, or compounds of silicon in which the element is covalently attached to hydrogen, boron, or elements other than oxygen, are mostly artificially produced. They are described below.

Silicon compounds of more modern origin function as high-technology abrasives and new high-strength ceramics based upon silicon carbide. Silicon is a component of some superalloys.

Alternating silicon-oxygen chains with hydrogen attached to the remaining silicon bonds form the ubiquitous silicon-based polymeric materials known as silicones. These compounds containing silicon-oxygen and occasionally silicon-carbon bonds have the capability to act as bonding intermediates between glass and organic compounds, and to form polymers with useful properties such as impermeability to water, flexibility and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are often used in waterproofing treatments, molding compounds, mold-release agents, mechanical seals, high temperature greases and waxes, and caulking compounds. Silicone is also sometimes used in breast implants, contact lenses, explosives and pyrotechnics.^[56] Silly Putty was originally made by adding boric acid to silicone oil.^[57]

Alloys

Elemental silicon is added to molten cast iron as ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys to improve performance in casting thin sections and to prevent the formation of cementite where exposed to outside air. The presence of elemental silicon in molten iron acts as a sink for oxygen, so that the steel carbon content, which must be kept within narrow limits for each type of steel, can be more closely controlled. Ferrosilicon production and use is a monitor of the steel industry, and although this form of elemental silicon is grossly impure, it accounts for 80% of the world's use of free silicon. Silicon is an important constituent of electrical steel, modifying its resistivity and ferromagnetic properties.

The properties of silicon can be used to modify alloys with metals other than iron. "Metallurgical grade" silicon is silicon of 95–99% purity. About 55% of the world consumption of metallurgical purity silicon goes for production of aluminium-silicon alloys (silumin alloys) for aluminium part casts, mainly for use in the automotive industry. Silicon's importance in aluminium casting is that a significantly high amount (12%) of silicon in aluminium forms a eutectic mixture which solidifies with very little thermal contraction. This greatly reduces tearing and cracks formed from stress as casting alloys cool to solidity. Silicon also significantly improves the hardness and thus wear-resistance of aluminium.^[17]^[18]

Electronics

Silicon wafer with mirror finish

Since most elemental silicon produced remains as ferrosilicon alloy, only a relatively small amount (20%) of the elemental silicon produced is refined to metallurgical grade purity (a total of 1.3–1.5 million metric tons/year). The fraction of silicon metal which is further refined to semiconductor purity is estimated at only 15% of the world production of metallurgical grade silicon.^[18] However, the economic importance of this small very high-purity fraction (especially the ~ 5% which is processed to monocrystalline silicon for use in integrated circuits) is disproportionately large.

Pure monocrystalline silicon is used to produce silicon wafers used in the semiconductor industry, in electronics and in some high-cost and high-efficiency photovoltaic applications. In terms of charge conduction, pure silicon is an intrinsic semiconductor which means that unlike metals it conducts electron holes and electrons that may be released from atoms within the crystal by heat, and thus increase silicon's electrical conductivity with higher temperatures. Pure silicon has too low a conductivity (i.e., too high a resistivity) to be used as a circuit element in electronics. In practice, pure silicon is doped with small concentrations of certain other elements, a process that greatly increases its conductivity and adjusts its electrical response by controlling the number and charge (positive or negative) of activated carriers. Such control is necessary for transistors, solar cells, semiconductor detectors and other semiconductor devices, which are used in the computer industry and other technical applications. For example, in silicon photonics, silicon can be used as a continuous wave Raman laser medium to produce coherent light, though it is ineffective as an everyday light source.

In common integrated circuits, a wafer of monocrystalline silicon serves as a mechanical support for the circuits, which are created by doping, and insulated from each other by thin layers of silicon oxide, an insulator that is easily produced by exposing the element to oxygen under the proper conditions. Silicon has become the most popular material to build both high power semiconductors and integrated circuits. The reason is that silicon is the semiconductor that can withstand the highest temperatures and electrical powers without becoming dysfunctional due to avalanche breakdown (a process in which an electron avalanche is created by a chain reaction process whereby heat produces free electrons and holes, which in turn produce more current which produces more heat). In addition, the insulating oxide of silicon is not soluble in water, which gives it an advantage over germanium (an element with similar properties which can also be used in semiconductor devices) in certain type of fabrication techniques.^[58]

Monocrystalline silicon is expensive to produce, and is usually only justified in production of integrated circuits, where tiny crystal imperfections can interfere with tiny circuit paths. For other uses, other types of pure silicon which do not exist as single crystals may be employed. These include hydrogenated amorphous silicon and upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si) which are used in the production of low-cost, large-area electronics in applications such as liquid crystal displays, and of large-area, low-cost, thin-film solar cells. Such semiconductor grades of silicon which are either slightly less pure than those used in integrated circuits, or which are produced in polycrystalline rather than monocrystalline form, make up roughly similar amount of silicon as are produced for the monocrystalline silicon semiconductor industry, or 75,000 to 150,000 metric tons per year. However, production of such materials is growing more quickly than silicon for the integrated circuit market. By 2013 polycrystalline silicon production, used mostly in solar cells, is projected to reach 200,000 metric tons per year, while monocrystalline semiconductor silicon production (used in computer microchips) remains below 50,000 tons/year.^[18]

Biological role

Silica skeletons of radiolaria in false color.

Although silicon is readily available in the form of silicates, very few organisms have a use for it. Diatoms, radiolaria and siliceous sponges use biogenic silica as a structural material to construct skeletons. In more advanced plants, the silica phytoliths (opal phytoliths) are rigid microscopic bodies occurring in the cell; some plants, for example rice, need silicon for their growth.^[59]^[60]^[61] Although silicon was proposed to be an ultra trace nutrient, its exact function in the biology of animals is still under discussion. Higher organisms are only known to use it in very limited occasions in the form of silicic acid and soluble silicates.^{[citation needed]}

Silicon is known to be needed for synthesis of elastin and collagen; the aorta contains the highest quantity of elastin and silicon.^[62]

Silicon is currently under consideration for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial substance by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO)."^[63]^[64] Silicon has been shown in university and field studies to improve plant cell wall strength and structural integrity,^[65] improve drought and frost resistance, decrease lodging potential and boost the plant's natural pest and disease fighting systems.^[66] Silicon has also been shown to improve plant vigor and physiology by improving root mass and density, and increasing above ground plant biomass and crop yields.^[65]

Hypothetical silicon-based lifeforms are the subject of silicon biochemistry, by analogy with carbon-based lifeforms. Silicon, being below carbon in the periodic table, is thought to have similar enough properties that would make silicon-based life possible, but much different from life as we know it.

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^ In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths" (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (salis = salt, in Latin)): chaux (calcium oxide), magnésie (magnesia, magnesium oxide), baryte (barium sulfate), alumine (alumina, aluminium oxide), and silice (silica, silicon dioxide). About these "elements", Lavoisier speculates: "We are probably only acquainted as yet with a part of the metallic substances existing in nature, as all those which have a stronger affinity to oxygen than carbon possesses, are incapable, hitherto, of being reduced to a metallic state, and consequently, being only presented to our observation under the form of oxyds, are confounded with earths. It is extremely probable that barytes, which we have just now arranged with earths, is in this situation; for in many experiments it exhibits properties nearly approaching to those of metallic bodies. It is even possible that all the substances we call earths may be only metallic oxyds, irreducible by any hitherto known process." – from page 218 of: Lavoisier with Robert Kerr, trans., Elements of Chemistry, … , 4th ed. (Edinburgh, Scotland: William Creech, 1799). (The original passage appears in: Lavoisier, Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, … (Paris, France: Cuchet, 1789), vol. 1, page 174.)
^ Davy, Humphry (1808) "Electro chemical researches, on the decomposition of the earths; with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the amalgam procured from ammonia," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society [of London], 98 : 333–370. On page 353 Davy coins the name "silicium" : "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium [silicon], alumium [aluminium], zirconium, and glucium [beryllium]."
^ Gay-Lussac and Thenard, Recherches physico-chimiques … (Paris, France: Deterville, 1811), vol. 1, pages 313–314 ; vol. 2, page 55–65.
^ Thomas Thomson, A System of Chemistry in Four Volumes, 5th ed. (London, England: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1817), vol. 1. From page 252: "The base of silica has been usually considered as a metal, and called silicium. But as there is not the smallest evidence for its metallic nature, and as it bears a close resemblance to boron and carbon, it is better to class it along with these bodies, and to give it the name of silicon."
^ See:
- Berzelius announced his discovery of silicon ("silicium") in: Berzelius, J. (presented: 1823 ; published: 1824) "Undersökning af flusspatssyran och dess märkvärdigaste föreningar" (Investigation of hydrofluoric acid and of its most noteworthy compounds), Kongliga Vetenskaps-Academiens Handlingar [Proceedings of the Royal Science Academy], 12 : 46–98. The isolation of silicon and its characterization are detailed in the section titled "Flussspatssyrad kisseljords sönderdelning med kalium," pages 46–68.
- The above article was reprinted in German in: J. J. Berzelius (1824) "II. Untersuchungen über Flussspathsäure und deren merkwürdigsten Verbindungen" (II. Investigations of hydrofluoric acid and its most noteworthy compounds), Annalen der Physik, 77 : 169–230. The isolation of silicon is detailed in the section titled: "Zersetzung der flussspaths. Kieselerde durch Kalium" (Decomposition of silicate fluoride by potassium), pages 204–210.
- The above article was reprinted in French in: Berzelius (1824) "Décomposition du fluate de silice par le potassium" (Decomposition of silica fluoride by potassium), Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 27 : 337–359.
- Reprinted in English in: Berzelius (1825) "On the mode of obtaining silicium, and on the characters and properties of that substance," Philosophical Magazine, 65 (324) : 254–267.
^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum". Journal of Chemical Education 9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.
^ Voronkov, M. G. (2007). "Silicon era". Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry 80 (12): 2190. doi:10.1134/S1070427207120397.
^ In 1854, Deville was trying to prepare aluminium metal from aluminium chloride that was heavily contaminated with silicon chloride. Deville used two methods to prepare aluminium: heating aluminium chloride with sodium metal in an inert atmosphere (of hydrogen); and melting aluminum chloride with sodium chloride and then electrolyzing the mixture. In both cases, pure silicon was produced: the silicon dissolved in the molten aluminium, but crystallized upon cooling. Dissolving the crude aluminum in hydrochloric acid revealed flakes of crystallized silicon. See: Henri Sainte-Claire Deville (1854) "Note sur deux procédés de préparation de l'aluminium et sur une nouvelle forme du silicium" (Note on two procedures for the preparation of aluminium and on a new form of silicon), Comptes rendus, 39 : 321–326.
Subsequently Deville obtained crystalline silicon by heating the chloride or fluoride of silicon with sodium metal, isolating the amorphous silicon, then melting the amorphous form with salt and heating the mixture until most of the salt evaporated. See: H. Sainte-Claire Deville (1855) "Du silicium et du titane" (On silicon and titanium), Comptes rendus, 40 : 1034–1036.
^ Information on silicon – history, thermodynamic, chemical, physical and electronic properties: Etacude.com. Elements.etacude.com. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.
^ Silicon: History. Nautilus.fis.uc.pt. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.
^ Greenwood 1997, p. 356.
^ Koch, E.C.; Clement, D. (2007). "Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: VI. Silicon – An Old Fuel with New Perspectives". Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 32 (3): 205. doi:10.1002/prep.200700021.
^ Walsh, Tim (2005). "Silly Putty". Timeless toys: classic toys and the playmakers who created them. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-5571-2.
^ Semiconductors Without the Quantum Physics. Electropaedia
^ Rahman, Atta-ur-. "Silicon". Studies in Natural Products Chemistry 35. p. 856. ISBN 978-0-444-53181-0.
^ Exley, C (1998). "Silicon in life:A bioinorganic solution to bioorganic essentiality". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 69 (3): 139. doi:10.1016/S0162-0134(97)10010-1.
^ Epstein, Emanuel (1999). "SILICON". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 50: 641–664. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641. PMID 15012222.
^ LOEPER J., LOEPER J., FRAGNY M. The physiological role of the silicon and its antiatheromatous action Biochemistry of silicon and related problems. Nobel Fondation Symposium 40. Edited by Gerd BENDZ and Ingvar LINDQVIST. Plenum Press. New York and London. 1978. ISBN 0-306-33710-X
^ "AAPFCO Board of Directors 2006 Mid-Year Meeting". Association of American Plant Food Control Officials. Retrieved 2011-07-18.
^ Miranda, Stephen R.; Bruce Barker. "Silicon: Summary of Extraction Methods". Harsco Minerals. August 4, 2009. Retrieved 2011-07-18.
^ ^a ^b "Silicon nutrition in plants". Plant Health Care,Inc.: 1. 12 December 2000. Retrieved 2011-07-01.
^ Prakash, Dr. N.B. (2007). "Evaluation of the calcium silicate as a source of silicon in aerobic and wet rice". University of Agricultural Science Bangalore: 1.

Bibliography

Greenwood, Norman N; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2 ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.

External links

Silicon at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Mineral.Galleries.com – Silicon
WebElements.com – Silicon
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

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「ケイ素」

Silicon
	14Si
	aluminium ← silicon → phosphorus
	Silicon in the periodic table
Appearance
	crystalline, reflective with bluish-tinged faces; ; ; Spectral lines of Silicon
General properties
Name, symbol, number	silicon, Si, 14
Pronunciation	/ˈsɪlɨkən/ SIL-ə-kən or /ˈsɪlɨkɒn/ SIL-ə-kon
Element category	metalloid
Group, period, block	14, 3, p
Standard atomic weight	28.085(1)
Electron configuration	[Ne] 3s2 3p2; 2, 8, 4
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	2.3290 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.	2.57 g·cm−3
Melting point	1687 K, 1414 °C, 2577 °F
Boiling point	3538 K, 3265 °C, 5909 °F
Heat of fusion	50.21 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization	383 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity	19.789 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	4, 3, 2, 1 -1, -2, -3, -4; (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	1.90 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies; (more)	1st: 786.5 kJ·mol−1
	2nd: 1577.1 kJ·mol−1
	3rd: 3231.6 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius	111 pm
Covalent radius	111 pm
Van der Waals radius	210 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	diamond cubic
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity	(20 °C) 103Ω·m
Thermal conductivity	149 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 2.6 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(20 °C) 8433 m·s−1
Young's modulus	130-188 GPa
Shear modulus	51-80 GPa
Bulk modulus	97.6 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.064 - 0.28
Mohs hardness	7
CAS registry number	7440-21-3
Band gap energy at 300 K	1.12 eV
History
Prediction	Antoine Lavoisier (1787)
Discovery	Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1823)
First isolation	Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1823)
Named by	Thomas Thomson (1817)
Most stable isotopes
	Main article: Isotopes of silicon
	v; t; e; · references

外見
	暗灰色; ; ; ケイ素のスペクトル線
一般特性
名称, 記号, 番号	ケイ素, Si, 14
分類	半金属
族, 周期, ブロック	14, 3, p
原子量	28.0855(3) g·mol-1
電子配置	[Ne] 3s2 3p2
電子殻	2, 8, 4（画像）
物理特性
相	固体
密度（室温付近）	2.3290 g·cm-3
融点での液体密度	2.57 g·cm-3
融点	1687 K, 1414 °C, 2577 °F
沸点	2628 K, 2355 °C, 4271 °F
融解熱	50.21 kJ·mol-1
蒸発熱	359 kJ·mol-1
熱容量	(25 °C) 19.789 J·mol-1·K-1
蒸気圧
原子特性
酸化数	4, 3 , 2 , 1 -1, -2, -3, -4; (両性酸化物)
電気陰性度	1.90（ポーリングの値）
イオン化エネルギー; （詳細）	第1： 786.5 kJ·mol-1
	第2： 1577.1 kJ·mol-1
	第3： 3231.6 kJ·mol-1
原子半径	111 pm
共有結合半径	111 pm
ファンデルワールス半径	210 pm
その他
結晶構造	立方晶系
磁性	反磁性
電気抵抗率	(20 °C) 103 Ω·m
熱伝導率	(300 K) 149 W·m-1·K-1
熱膨張率	(25 °C) 2.6 µm·m-1·K-1
音の伝わる速さ; （微細ロッド）	(20 °C) 8433 m/s
ヤング率	185 GPa
剛性率	52 GPa
体積弾性率	100 GPa
ポアソン比	0.28
モース硬度	7
CAS登録番号	7440-21-3
バンドギャップ energy at 300 K	1.12 eV
最安定同位体
	詳細はケイ素の同位体を参照
	表示

　　[★]

英: silicon、Si
関: シリコン、硅素、珪素

「珪素」

　　[★]

英: silicon
関: ケイ素、シリコン、硅素

「硅素」

　　[★]

英: silicon
関: ケイ素、シリコン、珪素

「シリコン」

　　[★]

英: silicon
関: ケイ素、硅素、珪素

「Si」

　　[★]

ケイ素

関: silicon

「silicone rubber」

　　[★]

シリコンゴム、シリコーンゴム

関: silicone elastomer

「silicone elastomer」

　　[★]

シリコンエラストマー

関: silicone rubber

「silicone gel」

　　[★]

シリコンジェル、シリコンゲル

[1] T. Michael Duncan, Jeffrey Allen Reimer, Chemical engineering design and analysis: an introduction, p. 25, Cambridge University Press, 1998 ISBN 0521639565

[2] R. S. Ram et al. "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" J. Mol. Spectr. 190, 341–352 (1998)

[3] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.

[ioffe-4] ttp://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Si

[5] 「9」(Nine)が15個並ぶことを意味する略称。

[6] 岸川利郎 (1990). ユーザーエンジニアのための光学入門. オプトロニクス. ISBN 4-900474-30-4.

[USGS_Sand-7] SAND AND GRAVEL(INDUSTRIAL), アメリカ地質調査所

[Wacker_SOG_review-8] Wacker Polysilicon: Expansion Announcement June 2006（Wacker 社による生産量拡大のアナウンス資料）

[NISTEP_Review-9] 河本洋、奥和田久美、高純度シリコン原料技術の開発動向(科学技術政策研究所)

[greentech_SiPrice-10] New Energy Finance Predicts 43% Solar Silicon Price Drop, greentechmedia, 18 August 2008

[1] Ram, R. S. et al. (1998). "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD". J. Mol. Spectr. 190: 341–352. PMID 9668026.

[2] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.

[ioffe-3] Physical Properties of Silicon. New Semiconductor Materials. Characteristics and Properties. Ioffe Institute

[hopcroft-4] Hopcroft, Matthew A.; Nix, William D.; Kenny, Thomas W. (2010). "What is the Young's Modulus of Silicon?". Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems 19 (2): 229. doi:10.1109/JMEMS.2009.2039697.

[5] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum". Journal of Chemical Education 9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.

[6] Voronkov, M. G. (2007). "Silicon era". Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry 80 (12): 2190. doi:10.1134/S1070427207120397.

[7] Nave, R. Abundances of the Elements in the Earth's Crust, Georgia State University

[Niels-8] Nielsen, Forrest H. (1984). "Ultratrace Elements in Nutrition". Annual Review of Nutrition 4: 21–41. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.000321. PMID 6087860.

[Cutter-9] Cutter, Elizabeth G. (1978). Plant Anatomy. Part 1 Cells and Tissues (2 ed.). London: Edward Arnold. ISBN 0 7131 2639 6.

[10] O'Mara, William C. (1990). Handbook of Semiconductor Silicon Technology. William Andrew Inc. pp. 349–352. ISBN 0-8155-1237-6.

[11] Hull, Robert (1999). Properties of crystalline silicon. p. 421. ISBN 978-0-85296-933-5.

[NNDC-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g NNDC contributors (2008). Alejandro A. Sonzogni (Database Manager), ed. "Chart of Nuclides". Upton (NY): National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-09-13.

[13] Jerschow, Alexej. "Interactive NMR Frequency Map". New York University. Retrieved 2011-10-20.

[14] Geological Survey (U.S.) (1975). Geological Survey professional paper.

[15] Anderson, Don L. (2007) New Theory of the Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84959-3, ISBN 0-521-84959-4

[16] "Silicon Commodities Report 2011". USGS. Retrieved 2011-10-20.

[diecasting-17] Apelian, D. (2009) Aluminum Cast Alloys: Enabling Tools for Improved Performance. North American Die Casting Association, Wheeling, Illinois.

[USGS-18] Corathers, Lisa A. 2009 Minerals Yearbook. USGS

[19] "Metallurgical silicon could become a rare commodity – just how quickly that happens depends to a certain extent on the current financial crisis". Photon International. Retrieved 2009-03-04.

[20] "Silicon". usgs.gov. Retrieved 2008-02-20.

[21] Rao, Gopalakrishna M. (1980). "Electrowinning of Silicon from K₂SiF₆-Molten Fluoride Systems". Journal of the Electrochemical Society 127 (9): 1940. doi:10.1149/1.2130041.

[22] De Mattei, Robert C. (1981). "Electrodeposition of Silicon at Temperatures above Its Melting Point". Journal of the Electrochemical Society 128 (8): 1712. doi:10.1149/1.2127716.

[23] Deville, H. St. C. (1854). "Recherches sur les métaux, et en particulier sur l'aluminium et sur une nouvelle forme du silicium". Ann. Chim. Phys. 43: 31.

[24] Siffert, Paul; Krimmel, E. F (2004). Silicon: Evolution and future of a technology. p. 33. ISBN 978-3-540-40546-7.

[25] Yasuda, Kouji; Saegusa, Kunio; Okabe, Toru H. (2010). "Production of Solar-grade Silicon by Halidothermic Reduction of Silicon Tetrachloride". Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B 42: 37. Bibcode:2011MMTB...42...37Y. doi:10.1007/s11663-010-9440-y.

[26] Yasuda, Kouji; Okabe, Toru H. (2010). "Solar-grade silicon production by metallothermic reduction". JOM 62 (12): 94. Bibcode:2010JOM....62l..94Y. doi:10.1007/s11837-010-0190-8.

[27] Van Der Linden, P. C.; De Jonge, J. (2010). "The preparation of pure silicon". Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas 78 (12): 962. doi:10.1002/recl.19590781204.

[28] "Analyst silicon field trip". hugin.info. March 28, 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-20.

[29] High Purity Polysilicon – Schumacher Process. Peak Sun Silicon. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997335.E2.80.93337-30] Greenwood 1997, pp. 335–337.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997339-31] Greenwood 1997, p. 339.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997337-32] Greenwood 1997, p. 337.

[Wiberg-33] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Nils (2007). Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemie (102 ed.). Berlin: de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-017770-6.

[34] Stone, F. G.; West, Robert (1996) Multiply Bonded Main Group Metals and Metalloids, Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-031139-9, p. 255

[35] Sekiguchi, A; Kinjo, R; Ichinohe, M (2004). "A stable compound containing a silicon-silicon triple bond". Science 305 (5691): 1755–7. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1755S. doi:10.1126/science.1102209. PMID 15375262.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997340.E2.80.93341-36] Greenwood 1997, pp. 340–341.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997342-37] Greenwood 1997, p. 342.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997346-38] Greenwood 1997, p. 346.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997344-39] Greenwood 1997, p. 344.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997359.E2.80.93360-40] Greenwood 1997, pp. 359–360.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997360-41] Greenwood 1997, p. 360.

[Lickiss-42] Lickiss, Paul D. (1994). Inorganic Compounds of Silicon, in Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3770–3805. ISBN 0-471-93620-0.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997364.E2.80.93365-43] Greenwood 1997, pp. 364–365.

[mark-44] Mark, James. E (2005). Inorganic polymers. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–245. ISBN 0-19-513119-3.

[45] In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths" (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (salis = salt, in Latin)): chaux (calcium oxide), magnésie (magnesia, magnesium oxide), baryte (barium sulfate), alumine (alumina, aluminium oxide), and silice (silica, silicon dioxide). About these "elements", Lavoisier speculates: "We are probably only acquainted as yet with a part of the metallic substances existing in nature, as all those which have a stronger affinity to oxygen than carbon possesses, are incapable, hitherto, of being reduced to a metallic state, and consequently, being only presented to our observation under the form of oxyds, are confounded with earths. It is extremely probable that barytes, which we have just now arranged with earths, is in this situation; for in many experiments it exhibits properties nearly approaching to those of metallic bodies. It is even possible that all the substances we call earths may be only metallic oxyds, irreducible by any hitherto known process." – from page 218 of: Lavoisier with Robert Kerr, trans., Elements of Chemistry, … , 4th ed. (Edinburgh, Scotland: William Creech, 1799). (The original passage appears in: Lavoisier, Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, … (Paris, France: Cuchet, 1789), vol. 1, page 174.)

[46] Davy, Humphry (1808) "Electro chemical researches, on the decomposition of the earths; with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the amalgam procured from ammonia," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society [of London], 98 : 333–370. On page 353 Davy coins the name "silicium" : "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium [silicon], alumium [aluminium], zirconium, and glucium [beryllium]."

[47] Gay-Lussac and Thenard, Recherches physico-chimiques … (Paris, France: Deterville, 1811), vol. 1, pages 313–314 ; vol. 2, page 55–65.

[48] Thomas Thomson, A System of Chemistry in Four Volumes, 5th ed. (London, England: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1817), vol. 1. From page 252: "The base of silica has been usually considered as a metal, and called silicium. But as there is not the smallest evidence for its metallic nature, and as it bears a close resemblance to boron and carbon, it is better to class it along with these bodies, and to give it the name of silicon."

[49] See:

Berzelius announced his discovery of silicon ("silicium") in: Berzelius, J. (presented: 1823 ; published: 1824) "Undersökning af flusspatssyran och dess märkvärdigaste föreningar" (Investigation of hydrofluoric acid and of its most noteworthy compounds), Kongliga Vetenskaps-Academiens Handlingar [Proceedings of the Royal Science Academy], 12 : 46–98. The isolation of silicon and its characterization are detailed in the section titled "Flussspatssyrad kisseljords sönderdelning med kalium," pages 46–68.

The above article was reprinted in German in: J. J. Berzelius (1824) "II. Untersuchungen über Flussspathsäure und deren merkwürdigsten Verbindungen" (II. Investigations of hydrofluoric acid and its most noteworthy compounds), Annalen der Physik, 77 : 169–230. The isolation of silicon is detailed in the section titled: "Zersetzung der flussspaths. Kieselerde durch Kalium" (Decomposition of silicate fluoride by potassium), pages 204–210.

The above article was reprinted in French in: Berzelius (1824) "Décomposition du fluate de silice par le potassium" (Decomposition of silica fluoride by potassium), Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 27 : 337–359.

Reprinted in English in: Berzelius (1825) "On the mode of obtaining silicium, and on the characters and properties of that substance," Philosophical Magazine, 65 (324) : 254–267.

[60] Berzelius announced his discovery of silicon ("silicium") in: Berzelius, J. (presented: 1823 ; published: 1824) "Undersökning af flusspatssyran och dess märkvärdigaste föreningar" (Investigation of hydrofluoric acid and of its most noteworthy compounds), Kongliga Vetenskaps-Academiens Handlingar [Proceedings of the Royal Science Academy], 12 : 46–98. The isolation of silicon and its characterization are detailed in the section titled "Flussspatssyrad kisseljords sönderdelning med kalium," pages 46–68.

[61] The above article was reprinted in German in: J. J. Berzelius (1824) "II. Untersuchungen über Flussspathsäure und deren merkwürdigsten Verbindungen" (II. Investigations of hydrofluoric acid and its most noteworthy compounds), Annalen der Physik, 77 : 169–230. The isolation of silicon is detailed in the section titled: "Zersetzung der flussspaths. Kieselerde durch Kalium" (Decomposition of silicate fluoride by potassium), pages 204–210.

[62] The above article was reprinted in French in: Berzelius (1824) "Décomposition du fluate de silice par le potassium" (Decomposition of silica fluoride by potassium), Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 27 : 337–359.

[63] Reprinted in English in: Berzelius (1825) "On the mode of obtaining silicium, and on the characters and properties of that substance," Philosophical Magazine, 65 (324) : 254–267.

[50] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum". Journal of Chemical Education 9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.

[51] Voronkov, M. G. (2007). "Silicon era". Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry 80 (12): 2190. doi:10.1134/S1070427207120397.

[52] In 1854, Deville was trying to prepare aluminium metal from aluminium chloride that was heavily contaminated with silicon chloride. Deville used two methods to prepare aluminium: heating aluminium chloride with sodium metal in an inert atmosphere (of hydrogen); and melting aluminum chloride with sodium chloride and then electrolyzing the mixture. In both cases, pure silicon was produced: the silicon dissolved in the molten aluminium, but crystallized upon cooling. Dissolving the crude aluminum in hydrochloric acid revealed flakes of crystallized silicon. See: Henri Sainte-Claire Deville (1854) "Note sur deux procédés de préparation de l'aluminium et sur une nouvelle forme du silicium" (Note on two procedures for the preparation of aluminium and on a new form of silicon), Comptes rendus, 39 : 321–326.
Subsequently Deville obtained crystalline silicon by heating the chloride or fluoride of silicon with sodium metal, isolating the amorphous silicon, then melting the amorphous form with salt and heating the mixture until most of the salt evaporated. See: H. Sainte-Claire Deville (1855) "Du silicium et du titane" (On silicon and titanium), Comptes rendus, 40 : 1034–1036.

[53] Information on silicon – history, thermodynamic, chemical, physical and electronic properties: Etacude.com. Elements.etacude.com. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.

[54] Silicon: History. Nautilus.fis.uc.pt. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.

[FOOTNOTEGreenwood1997356-55] Greenwood 1997, p. 356.

[56] Koch, E.C.; Clement, D. (2007). "Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: VI. Silicon – An Old Fuel with New Perspectives". Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 32 (3): 205. doi:10.1002/prep.200700021.

[57] Walsh, Tim (2005). "Silly Putty". Timeless toys: classic toys and the playmakers who created them. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-5571-2.

[58] Semiconductors Without the Quantum Physics. Electropaedia

[59] Rahman, Atta-ur-. "Silicon". Studies in Natural Products Chemistry 35. p. 856. ISBN 978-0-444-53181-0.

[abd-60] Exley, C (1998). "Silicon in life:A bioinorganic solution to bioorganic essentiality". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 69 (3): 139. doi:10.1016/S0162-0134(97)10010-1.

[plants-61] Epstein, Emanuel (1999). "SILICON". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 50: 641–664. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641. PMID 15012222.

[Loeper-62] LOEPER J., LOEPER J., FRAGNY M. The physiological role of the silicon and its antiatheromatous action Biochemistry of silicon and related problems. Nobel Fondation Symposium 40. Edited by Gerd BENDZ and Ingvar LINDQVIST. Plenum Press. New York and London. 1978. ISBN 0-306-33710-X

[63] "AAPFCO Board of Directors 2006 Mid-Year Meeting". Association of American Plant Food Control Officials. Retrieved 2011-07-18.

[presentation-64] Miranda, Stephen R.; Bruce Barker. "Silicon: Summary of Extraction Methods". Harsco Minerals. August 4, 2009. Retrieved 2011-07-18.

[PHC-65] "Silicon nutrition in plants". Plant Health Care,Inc.: 1. 12 December 2000. Retrieved 2011-07-01.

[Bangalore-66] Prakash, Dr. N.B. (2007). "Evaluation of the calcium silicate as a source of silicon in aerobic and wet rice". University of Agricultural Science Bangalore: 1.

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