松果体の
WordNet
- relating to the pineal body; "pineal hormone"
- having the form of a pine cone
- a coniferous tree (同)pine_tree, true pine
- straight-grained durable and often resinous white to yellowish timber of any of numerous trees of the genus Pinus
PrepTutorEJDIC
- 松果腺[体]の・松傘状の
- (また『pine tree』)〈C〉『松』,松の木 / 〈U〉松材
- (悲しみ・切望などで)やつれる,やせ衰える《+『away』(『out』)『from』+『名』》 / 切望する,思いこがれる(yearn)
Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/04/27 18:21:45」(JST)
wiki en
| Pineal gland | |
|---|---|
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Diagram of pituitary and pineal glands in the human brain
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| Details | |
| Precursor | Neural Ectoderm, Roof of Diencephalon |
| Artery | posterior cerebral artery |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | glandula pinealis |
| MeSH | Pineal+gland |
| NeuroLex ID | Pineal body |
| Dorlands /Elsevier |
g_06/12392585 |
| TA | A11.2.00.001 |
| FMA | 62033 |
| Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
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Pineal gland or epiphysis (in red in back of the brain). Expand the image to an animated version
The pineal gland, also known as the pineal body, conarium or epiphysis cerebri, is a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. It produces melatonin, a serotonin derived hormone, which affects the modulation of sleep patterns in both seasonal and circadian rhythms.[1][2] Its shape resembles a tiny pine cone (hence its name), and it is located in the epithalamus, near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres, tucked in a groove where the two halves of the thalamus join.
Nearly all vertebrate species possess a pineal gland. The most important exception is the hagfish, which is often thought of as the most primitive extant vertebrate.[3] Even in the hagfish, however, there may be a "pineal equivalent" structure in the dorsal diencephalon.[4] The lancelet Branchiostoma lanceolatum, the nearest existing relative to vertebrates, also lacks a recognizable pineal gland.[3] The lamprey (considered almost as primitive as the hagfish), however, does possess one.[3] A few more developed vertebrates, including the alligator, lack pineal glands because they have been lost over the course of evolution.[5]
The results of various scientific research in evolutionary biology, comparative neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, have explained the phylogeny of the pineal gland in different vertebrate species. From the point of view of biological evolution, the pineal gland represents a kind of atrophied photoreceptor. In the epithalamus of some species of amphibians and reptiles, it is linked to a vestigial organ, known as the parietal eye which is also called the third eye.[6]
René Descartes believed the pineal gland to be the "principal seat of the soul" (a mystical concept). Academic philosophy among his contemporaries considered the pineal gland as a neuroanatomical structure without special metaphysical qualities; science studied it as one endocrine gland among many. However, the pineal gland continues to have an exalted status in the realms of pseudoscience, metaphysics and psychospirituality.[7]
Contents
- 1 Structure
- 1.1 Blood supply
- 1.2 Innervation
- 1.3 Histology
- 1.4 Development
- 2 Function
- 2.1 Regulation of the pituitary gland
- 2.2 Drug metabolism
- 3 Clinical significance
- 3.1 Calcification
- 3.2 Tumours
- 4 Other animals
- 5 Society and culture
- 6 History
- 7 See also
- 8 Additional images
- 9 References
- 10 External links
Structure
The pineal gland is the only midline brain structure that is unpaired (azygous). It takes its name from its pine-cone shape.[8] The gland is reddish-gray and about the size of a grain of rice (5–8 mm) in humans. The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is part of the epithalamus, and lies between the laterally positioned thalamic bodies and behind the habenular commissure. It is located in the quadrigeminal cistern near to the corpora quadrigemina.[9] It is also located behind the third ventricle and is bathed in cerebrospinal fluid supplied through a small pineal recess of the third ventricle which projects into the stalk of the gland.[10]
Blood supply
Unlike most of the mammalian brain, the pineal gland is not isolated from the body by the blood–brain barrier system;[11] it has profuse blood flow, second only to the kidney,[12] supplied from the choroidal branches of the posterior cerebral artery.
Innervation
The pineal gland receives a sympathetic innervation from the superior cervical ganglion. A parasympathetic innervation from the pterygopalatine and otic ganglia is also present.[13] Further, some nerve fibers penetrate into the pineal gland via the pineal stalk (central innervation). Also, neurons in the trigeminal ganglion innervate the gland with nerve fibers containing the neuropeptide PACAP.
Histology
Pineal gland parenchyma with calcifications.
Micrograph of a normal pineal gland – very high magnification.
Micrograph of a normal pineal gland – intermediate magnification.
The pineal body consists in humans of a lobular parenchyma of pinealocytes surrounded by connective tissue spaces. The gland's surface is covered by a pial capsule.
The pineal gland consists mainly of pinealocytes, but four other cell types have been identified. As it is quite cellular (in relation to the cortex and white matter), it may be mistaken for a neoplasm.[14]
| Cell type | Description |
|---|---|
| Pinealocytes | The pinealocytes consist of a cell body with 4–6 processes emerging. They produce and secrete melatonin. The pinealocytes can be stained by special silver impregnation methods. Their cytoplasm is lightly basophilic. With special stains, pinealocytes exhibit lengthy, branched cytoplasmic processes that extend to the connective septa and its blood vessels. |
| Interstitial cells | Interstitial cells are located between the pinealocytes. They have elongated nuclei and a cytoplasm that is stained darker than that of the pinealocytes. |
| Perivascular phagocyte | Many capillaries are present in the gland, and perivascular phagocytes are located close to these blood vessels. The perivascular phagocytes are antigen presenting cells. |
| Pineal neurons | In higher vertebrates neurons are usually located in the pineal gland. However, this is not the case in rodents. |
| Peptidergic neuron-like cells | In some species, neuronal-like peptidergic cells are present. These cells might have a paracrine regulatory function. |
In some parts of the brain and in particular the pineal gland, there are calcium structures, the number of which increases with age, called corpora arenacea (or "acervuli," or "brain sand"). Chemical analysis shows that they are composed of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium phosphate, and ammonium phosphate.[15] In 2002, deposits of the calcite form of calcium carbonate were described.[16] Calcium and phosphorus[17] deposits in the pineal gland have been linked with aging.
Development
The human pineal gland grows in size until about 1–2 years of age, remaining stable thereafter,[18][19] although its weight increases gradually from puberty onwards.[20][21] The abundant melatonin levels in children are believed to inhibit sexual development, and pineal tumors have been linked with precocious puberty. When puberty arrives, melatonin production is reduced.[citation needed]
Function
Melatonin is N-acetyl-5-methoxy-tryptamine, a derivative of the amino acid tryptophan, which also has other functions in the central nervous system. The production of melatonin by the pineal gland is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.[22][23] Photosensitive cells in the retina detect light and directly signal the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), entraining its rhythm to the 24-hour cycle in nature. Fibers project from the SCN to the paraventricular nuclei (PVN), which relay the circadian signals to the spinal cord and out via the sympathetic system to superior cervical ganglia (SCG), and from there into the pineal gland.
The compound pinoline is also produced in the pineal gland; it is one of the beta-carbolines.[24]
Regulation of the pituitary gland
Studies on rodents suggest that the pineal gland influences the pituitary gland's secretion of the sex hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). In a study by Motta, Fraschini, and Martini (1967), a pinealectomy was performed on rodents. No change in pituitary weight was observed, however there was an increase in the concentration of FSH and LH within the gland. In this same study, administration of melatonin did not return the concentrations of FSH to normal levels, suggesting that the pineal gland influences the pituitary glands secretion of FSH and LH through some other transmitting molecule.[25]
Drug metabolism
Studies on rodents suggest that the pineal gland may influence the actions of recreational drugs, such as cocaine,[26] and antidepressants, such as fluoxetine (Prozac),[27] and that its hormone melatonin can protect against neurodegeneration.[28]
Clinical significance
Calcification
Calcification of the pineal gland is typical (1% of study participants) in young adults, and has been observed in children as young as two years of age.[29] The calcified gland is often seen in skull X-Rays.[29] Calcification rates vary widely by country and correlate with an increase in age, with calcification occurring in an estimated 40% of Americans by their 17th year.[29] Calcification of the pineal gland is largely associated with corpora arenacea also known as "brain sand".
It seems that the internal secretions of the pineal gland inhibit the development of the reproductive glands, because, in cases where it is severely damaged in children, the result is accelerated development of the sexual organs and the skeleton.[30]
Some studies show that the degree of pineal gland calcification is significantly higher in patients with Alzheimer's disease vs. other types of dementia.[31]
Pineal gland calcification may also contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and may reflect an absence of crystallization inhibitors.[31]
Calcium, phosphorus,[17] and fluoride deposits in the pineal gland have been correlated with aging, showing that, as the brain ages, more deposits collect.[32]
Tumours
Tumours of the pineal gland are called pinealomas. These tumours are rare and 50% to 70% are germinomas that arise from sequestered embryonic germ cells. Histologically they are similar to testicular seminomas and ovarian dysgerminomas.[33]
A pineal tumour can compress the superior colliculi and pretectal area of the dorsal midbrain, producing Parinaud's syndrome. Pineal tumours also can cause compression of the cerebral aqueduct, resulting in a noncommunicating hydrocephalus. Other manifestations are the consequence of their pressure effects and consist of visual disturbances, headache, mental deterioration, and sometimes dementia-like behaviour.[34]
These neoplasms are divided into three categories, pineoblastomas, pineocytomas, and mixed tumours, based on their level of differentiation, which, in turn, correlates with their neoplastic aggressiveness.[35] The clinical course of patients with pineocytomas is prolonged, averaging up to several years.[36] The position of these tumours makes them very difficult or impossible to remove surgically.
Other animals
Pinealocytes in many non-mammalian vertebrates have a strong resemblance to the photoreceptor cells of the eye. Some evolutionary biologists believe that the vertebrate pineal cells possess a common evolutionary ancestor with retinal cells.[37]
Pineal cytostructure seems to have evolutionary similarities to the retinal cells of chordates.[37] Modern birds and reptiles have been found to express the phototransducing pigment melanopsin in the pineal gland. Avian pineal glands are believed to act like the suprachiasmatic nucleus in mammals.[38]
In some vertebrates, exposure to light can set off a chain reaction of enzymatic events within the pineal gland that regulate circadian rhythms.[39] Some early vertebrate fossil skulls have a pineal foramen (opening). This correlates with the physiology of the modern "living fossils," the lampreys and the tuatara, and some other vertebrates that have a parietal eye, which, in some of them, is photosensitive. The parietal eye represents evolution's earlier approach to photoreception.[40] The structures of the pineal eye in the tuatara are analogous to the cornea, lens, and retina, though the latter resembles that of an octopus rather than a vertebrate retina. The asymmetrical whole consists of the "eye" to the left and the pineal sac to the right. "In animals that have lost the parietal eye, including mammals, the pineal sac is retained and condensed into the form of the pineal gland."[40]
Fossils seldom preserve soft anatomy. The brain of the Russian Melovatka bird, about 90 million years old, is an exception, and it shows a larger-than-expected parietal eye and pineal gland.[41]
In humans and other mammals, the light signals necessary to set circadian rhythms are sent from the eye through the retinohypothalamic system to the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) and the pineal gland.
Society and culture
Diagram of the operation of the pineal gland for Descartes in the Treaty of Man (figure published in the edition of 1664)
Seventeenth-century philosopher and scientist René Descartes was highly interested in anatomy and physiology. He discussed the pineal gland both in his first book, the Treatise of Man (written before 1637, but only published posthumously 1662/1664), and in his last book, The Passions of the Soul (1649) and he regarded it as "the principal seat of the soul and the place in which all our thoughts are formed."[7] In the Treatise of Man, Descartes did not describe man, but a kind of conceptual models of man, namely creatures, created by God, which consist of two ingredients, a body and a soul.[7][42] In the Passions, Descartes begins by splitting man up into a body and a soul and emphasized that the soul is joined to the whole body by "a certain very small gland situated in the middle of the brain's substance and suspended above the passage through which the spirits in the brain's anterior cavities communicate with those in its posterior cavities". Descartes attached significance to the gland because he believed it to be the only section of the brain to exist as a single part rather than one-half of a pair. He argued that, because a person can never have "more than one thought at a time,"external stimuli must be united within the brain before being considered by the soul, and he considered the pineal gland to be situated in "the most suitable possible place for this purpose", located centrally in the brain and surrounded by branches of the carotid arteries. The pineal gland played an important role in Descartes' account because it was involved in sensation, imagination, memory and the causation of bodily movements. But most of Descartes' basic anatomical and physiological assumptions were totally mistaken, not only by our standards, but also in light of what was already known in his time. [7]
Baruch de Spinoza criticized Descartes' viewpoint for neither following from self-evident premises nor being "clearly and distinctly perceived" (Descartes having previously asserted that he could not draw conclusions of this sort), and questioned what Descartes meant by talking of "the union of the mind and the body."[43]
The notion of a "pineal-eye" is central to the philosophy of the French writer Georges Bataille, which is analyzed at length by literary scholar Denis Hollier in his study Against Architecture. In this work Hollier discusses how Bataille uses the concept of a "pineal-eye" as a reference to a blind-spot in Western rationality, and an organ of excess and delirium.[44] This conceptual device is explicit in his surrealist texts, The Jesuve and The Pineal Eye.[45]
Indian spiritual philosophies such as Yoga and Tantra contain the notion of an inner third eye that is related to the Ajna chakra and also to the pineal gland. These are attributed significance in mystical awakening or enlightenment, clairvoyant perception, and higher states of consciousness. This idea occurs historically in ancient Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism[dubious – discuss], as well as in contemporary theories connecting to theosophy, and neo-pagan religions, as well as New Age spiritual philosophies. It was particularly expounded by Madame Blavatsky in 1888 and gained a growing popularity in the West.[46]
Author and researcher Rick Strassman has theorised that the pineal gland is capable of producing the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) under certain circumstances, calling the drug "the spirit molecule".
The current academic philosophy considered the pineal gland as a neuroanatomical structure without special metaphysical qualities. Science studied it as one endocrine gland among many. However, the pineal gland continues to have an exalted status in pseudoscience.[7]
History
The secretory activity of the pineal gland is only partially understood. Its location deep in the brain suggested to philosophers throughout history that it possesses particular importance. This combination led to its being regarded as a "mystery" gland with mystical, metaphysical, and occult theories surrounding its perceived functions.
The pineal gland was originally believed to be a "vestigial remnant" of a larger organ. In 1917, it was known that extract of cow pineals lightened frog skin. Dermatology professor Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues at Yale University, hoping that a substance from the pineal might be useful in treating skin diseases, isolated and named the hormone melatonin in 1958.[47] The substance did not prove to be helpful as intended, but its discovery helped solve several mysteries such as why removing the rat's pineal accelerated ovary growth, why keeping rats in constant light decreased the weight of their pineals, and why pinealectomy and constant light affect ovary growth to an equal extent; this knowledge gave a boost to the then new field of chronobiology.[48]
See also
Pineal gland cyst
Additional images
The pineal body is labeled in these images.
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Mesal aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane.
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Dissection showing the ventricles of the brain.
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Hind- and mid-brains; antero-lateral view.
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Median sagittal section of brain.
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Pineal gland
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Brainstem. Posterior view.
References
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- ^ Arendt J, Skene DJ (2005). "Melatonin as a chronobiotic". Sleep Med Rev 9 (1): 25–39. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2004.05.002. PMID 15649736.
Exogenous melatonin has acute sleepiness-inducing and temperature-lowering effects during 'biological daytime', and when suitably timed (it is most effective around dusk and dawn) it will shift the phase of the human circadian clock (sleep, endogenous melatonin, core body temperature, cortisol) to earlier (advance phase shift) or later (delay phase shift) times.
- ^ a b c Vernadakis AJ, Bemis WE, Bittman EL (April 1998). "Localization and partial characterization of melatonin receptors in amphioxus, hagfish, lamprey, and skate". Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 110 (1): 67–78. doi:10.1006/gcen.1997.7042. PMID 9514841. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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- ^ Motta, Marina; Fraschini, F.; Martini, L. (1967). "Endocrine Effects of Pineal Gland and of Melatonin.". Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 126 (2): 431–435. doi:10.3181/00379727-126-32468.
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|title=(help) - ^ Bruce, Jeffrey. "Pineal Tumours". eMedicine. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
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- ^ Clark, Aaron J.; Sughrue, Michael E.; Ivan, Michael E.; Aranda, Derick; Rutkowski, Martin J.; Kane, Ari J.; Chang, Susan; Parsa, Andrew T. (2010). "Factors influencing overall survival rates for patients with pineocytoma". Journal of Neuro-Oncology 100 (2): 255–260. doi:10.1007/s11060-010-0189-6. PMC 2995321. PMID 20461445.
- ^ a b Klein D (2004). "The 2004 Aschoff/Pittendrigh lecture: Theory of the origin of the pineal gland—a tale of conflict and resolution". J Biol Rhythms 19 (4): 264–79. doi:10.1177/0748730404267340. PMID 15245646.
- ^ Natesan A, Geetha L, Zatz M (2002). "Rhythm and soul in the avian pineal". Cell Tissue Res 309 (1): 35–45. doi:10.1007/s00441-002-0571-6. PMID 12111535. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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External links
| Look up pineal gland in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pineal gland. |
- gland Stained brain slice images which include the "pineal gland" at the BrainMaps project
- hier-280 at NeuroNames
- Histology at BU: Endocrine System: pineal gland (illustration)
- Anatomy Atlases, Microscopic atlas: Pineal gland
- MedPix: Images of Pineal region
- Studies of chinese original quiet sitting by using functional magnetic resonance imaging..
- Detection of nighttime melatonin level in Chinese Original Quiet Sitting.
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- Pineal calcification is a novel risk factor for symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage.
- Kitkhuandee A1, Sawanyawisuth K2, Johns J3, Kanpittaya J4, Tuntapakul S3, Johns NP3.
- Clinical neurology and neurosurgery.Clin Neurol Neurosurg.2014 Jun;121:51-4. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2014.03.019. Epub 2014 Mar 26.
- BACKGROUND: Pineal calcification is associated with symptomatic cerebral infarction in humans. However, there are limited data on the association of pineal calcification and intracerebral hemorrhage. We evaluated this association of symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage and pineal calcification by co
- PMID 24793475
- Melatonin synthesis impairment as a new deleterious outcome of diabetes-derived hyperglycemia.
- Amaral FG1, Turati AO, Barone M, Scialfa JH, do Carmo Buonfiglio D, Peres R, Peliciari-Garcia RA, Afeche SC, Lima L, Scavone C, Bordin S, Reiter RJ, Menna-Barreto L, Cipolla-Neto J.
- Journal of pineal research.J Pineal Res.2014 May 13. doi: 10.1111/jpi.12144. [Epub ahead of print]
- Melatonin is a neurohormone that works as a nighttime signal for circadian integrity and health maintenance. It is crucial for energy metabolism regulation and the diabetes effects on its synthesis are unresolved. Using diverse techniques that included pineal microdialysis and ultrahigh performance
- PMID 24819547
- Salutary effects of melatonin combined with treadmill exercise on cartilage damage.
- Hong Y1, Kim H, Lee Y, Lee S, Kim K, Jin Y, Lee SR, Chang KT, Hong Y.
- Journal of pineal research.J Pineal Res.2014 May 12. doi: 10.1111/jpi.12143. [Epub ahead of print]
- Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major cause of disability in the adult population. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of melatonin with graded dosage on extracellular matrix synthesis and cellular death in response to cartilage damage in vitro and in vivo. TNF-α reduced the viability of
- PMID 24816289
Japanese Journal
- 松果体と色素細胞についての考察 : とくに発達・腫瘍・Wnt信号と関連して
- 加地 隆
- 弘前医療福祉大学紀要 6(1), 1-18, 2015-03-31
- NAID 40020470127
- 松果体と色素細胞についての考察 : とくに発達・腫瘍・Wnt信号と関連して
- 加地 隆
- 弘前医療福祉大学紀要 6(1), 1-18, 2015-03-31
- 松果体と色素細胞について、特に発達、腫瘍、細胞分化機序と関連して概観・考察した。脊椎動物松果体は個体発生的に背側神経管に由来する脳内の正中線上の器官であり、系統発生的に下等脊椎動物における光受容器から哺乳動物における内分泌腺へと変化する。主な内容：1. 正常哺乳動物松果体に見られるメラニンやリポフスチン等の色素。 2. 1）哺乳動物松果体の組織発生過程、特に神経上皮性要素と間葉性要素。2）ヒト胎生 …
- NAID 120005597940
- 視力低下と視野障害で発見された閉塞性水頭症を伴う松果体囊胞の1例 (特集 第68回日本臨床眼科学会講演集(1))
- 池上 靖子,田中 俊一,玉置 正史
- 臨床眼科 69(3), 347-353, 2015-03
- NAID 40020395739
- 松果体波長識別の分子基盤に関する分子生理学的解析と進化学的考察
- 山下(川野) 絵美
- 比較生理生化学 = Comparative physiology and biochemistry 32(1), 2-9, 2015
- NAID 40020397500
Related Links
- Pineal definition, resembling a pine cone in shape. See more. Dictionary.com Word of the Day Translate Games Blog Thesaurus.com Favorites Dictionary.com Thesaurus.com My Account Log Out Log In Try Our Favorite Button ...
- Circulating melatonin levels in vertebrates are derived from pineal melatonin secretion, and their magnitude informs brain regions about environmental light-dark cycles and seasonality, as inferred by changes in the duration of the ...
- pineal (comparative more pineal, superlative most pineal) In the shape of a pine cone. Pertaining to the pineal gland. Derived terms [] Derived terms pineal body pineal eye pineal gland pineal hormone Translations [] in the shape of ...
Related Pictures
★リンクテーブル★
| リンク元 | 「松果体部」 |
| 拡張検索 | 「pineal tumor」「pineal neoplasm」「pinealectomy」 |
| 関連記事 | 「pine」 |
「松果体部」
- 英
- pineal region, pineal
- 関
- 松果体
「pineal tumor」
「pineal neoplasm」
「pinealectomy」
「pine」