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Extra-virgin olive oil
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| Fat composition | |
|---|---|
| Saturated fats | |
| Total saturated | Palmitic acid: 13.0% Stearic acid: 1.5% |
| Unsaturated fats | |
| Total unsaturated | > 85% |
| Monounsaturated | Oleic acid: 70.0% Palmitoleic acid: 0.3–3.5% |
| Polyunsaturated | Linoleic acid: 15.0% α-Linolenic acid: 0.5% |
| Properties | |
| Food energy per 100 g (3.5 oz) | 3,700 kJ (880 kcal) |
| Melting point | −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) |
| Boiling point | 300 °C (572 °F) |
| Smoke point | 190 °C (374 °F) (virgin) 210 °C (410 °F) (refined) |
| Specific gravity at 20 °C (68 °F) | 0.911[1] |
| Viscosity at 20 °C (68 °F) | 84 cP |
| Refractive index | 1.4677–1.4705 (virgin and refined) 1.4680–1.4707 (pomace) |
| Iodine value | 75–94 (virgin and refined) 75–92 (pomace) |
| Acid value | maximum: 6.6 (refined and pomace) 0.6 (extra-virgin) |
| Saponification value | 184–196 (virgin and refined) 182–193 (pomace) |
| Peroxide value | 20 (virgin) 10 (refined and pomace) |
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Olive oil is a fat obtained from the olive (the fruit of Olea europaea; family Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. Olive oil is used throughout the world and is often associated with Mediterranean countries.[2] Adulteration of olive oil is widespread, with involvement by organised crime..
The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC.[3] The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor[4] or in ancient Greece.[n 1] It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated: in Asia Minor, along the Levantine coast stretching from the Sinai Peninsula and Israel to historic Armenia,[3] or somewhere in the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent.
Archeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC[7] and 4500 BC in present-day Israel.[8] Until 1500 BC, eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC. The earliest surviving olive oil amphorae date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the production of olive oil is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.[9] The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy, as it did across the Mediterranean.
Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, but a detailed history of domestication is not yet forthcoming.[10]
Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh.[11]
Dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea. Sinuhe, the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan about 1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive trees.[12]
Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious rituals, medicines, as a fuel in oil lamps, soap-making, and skin care application. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the Minoan civilization, where it is thought to have represented wealth. The Minoans put the pulp into settling tanks and, when the oil had risen to the top, drained the water from the bottom.[citation needed] Olive tree growing reached Iberia and Etruscan cities well before the 8th century BC through trade with the Phoenicians and Carthage, then was spread into Southern Gaul by the Celtic tribes during the 7th century BC.
The first recorded oil extraction is known from the Hebrew Bible and took place during the Exodus from Egypt, during the 13th century BC.[13] During this time, the oil was derived through hand-squeezing the berries and stored in special containers under guard of the priests. A commercial mill for non-sacramental use of oil was in use in the tribal Confederation and later in 1000 BC, the fertile crescent, an area consisting of present-day Palestine, Lebanon, and Israel. Over 100 olive presses have been found in Tel Miqne (Ekron), where the Biblical Philistines also produced oil. These presses are estimated to have had output of between 1,000 and 3,000 tons of olive oil per season.
Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still in use today.[14]
Olive oil was common in ancient Greek and Roman cuisine. According to Herodotus, Apollodorus, Plutarch, Pausanias, Ovid and other sources, the city of Athens obtained its name because Athenians considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess Athena (an olive tree) over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt water gushing out of a cliff). The Spartans and other Greeks used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the gymnasia. From its beginnings early in the 7th century BC, the cosmetic use of olive oil quickly spread to all of the Hellenic city states, together with athletes training in the nude, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense.[15][16] Olive trees were planted throughout the entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the Roman republic and empire. According to the historian Pliny the Elder, Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD, "the best in the Mediterranean", he maintained.
The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that the English word oil derives from c. 1175, olive oil, from Anglo-Fr. and O.N.Fr. olie, from O.Fr. oile (12c., Mod.Fr. huile), from L. oleum "oil, olive oil" (cf. It. olio), from Gk. elaion "olive tree",[17][18] which may have been borrowed through trade networks from the Semitic Phoenician use of el'yon meaning "superior", probably in recognized comparison to other vegetable or animal fats available at the time. Robin Lane Fox suggests[19] that the Latin borrowing of Greek elaion for oil (Latin oleum) is itself a marker for improved Greek varieties of oil-producing olive, already present in Italy as Latin was forming, brought by Euboean traders, whose presence in Latium is signaled by remains of their characteristic pottery, from the mid-8th century.
There are many different olive varieties or olives, each with a particular flavor, texture, and shelf life that make them more or less suitable for different applications such as direct human consumption on bread or in salads, indirect consumption in domestic cooking or catering, or industrial uses such as animal feed or engineering applications.[20]
| Virgin olive oil production – 2013 | |
|---|---|
| Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
| Spain | 1.11 |
| Italy | 0.44 |
| Greece | 0.31 |
| Tunisia | 0.19 |
| Turkey | 0.19 |
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2.8 |
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In 2013, world production of virgin olive oil was 2.8 million tonnes (table), a 20% decrease from the 2012 world production of 3.5 million tonnes.[21] Spain produced 1.1 million tonnes or 39% of world production in 2013. 75% of Spain's production derives from the region of Andalucía, particularly within Jaén province which produces 70% of olive oil in Spain.[23] In the town of Villacarrillo, Jaén, is the world’s largest olive oil mill capable of processing 2,500 tons of olives per day.[23]
Although Italy is a net importer of olive oil, it produced 442,000 tonnes in 2013 or 16% of the world's production (table). Major Italian producers are known as "Città dell'Olio", "oil cities"; including Lucca, Florence and Siena, in Tuscany. The largest production, however, is harvested in Apulia and Calabria. Greece accounted for 11% of world production in 2013.[21]
Australia now produces a substantial amount of olive oil. Many Australian producers only make premium oils, while a number of corporate growers operate groves of a million trees or more and produce oils for the general market. Australian olive oil is exported to Asia, Europe and the United States.[24]
In North America, Italian and Spanish olive oils are the best-known, and top-quality extra-virgin olive oil from Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece are sold at high prices, often in prestige packaging. A large part of U.S. olive oil imports come from Italy, Spain, and Turkey.
The United States produces olive oil in California, Arizona, and Texas.[25]
The International Olive Council (IOC) is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce olives or products derived from olives, such as olive oil. The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils.[26]
The United States is not a member of the IOC and is not subject to its authority, but on October 25, 2010, the U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted new voluntary olive oil grading standards that closely parallel those of the IOC, with some adjustments for the characteristics of olives grown in the U.S.[27] Additionally, U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable size letters so as not to mislead the consumer.[28][29] Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print.[30] "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece."[31] This makes it unclear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin.
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All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste by crushing or pressing. This paste is then malaxed (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to agglomerate. The oil is then separated from the watery matter and fruit pulp with the use of a press (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a small quantity of oil.
To classify its organoleptic qualities, olive oil is judged by a panel of trained tasters in a blind taste test.
One parameter used to characterise an oil is its acidity. In this context, "acidity" is not chemical acidity in the sense of pH, but the percent (measured by weight) of free oleic acid.[citation needed] Measured by quantitative analysis, acidity is a measure of the hydrolysis of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing hydrolytic rancidity.[citation needed] Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the peroxide value, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized (damaged by free radicals, leading to oxidative rancidity. Phenolic acids present in olive oil also add acidic sensory properties to aroma and flavor.[32]
The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
In countries that adhere to the standards of the International Olive Council (IOC),[34] as well as in Australia, and under the voluntary USDA labeling standards in the United States:
As the United States is not a member, the IOC retail grades have no legal meaning there, but on October 25, 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil, which closely parallel the IOC standards:[35][36]
These grades are voluntary. Certification is available, for a fee, from the USDA .[36]
There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt.[43] Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification.[44] In some cases, colza oil (Swedish turnip) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.[45] This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.[46] In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.[47] Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.[46]
Extra Virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary) and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are:
In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil", arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.[49] In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil, and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.[50]
On March 15, 2011, the prosecutor's office in Florence, Italy, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents."[51]
In February 2012, an international olive oil scam was alleged by Spanish police to have taken place, in which palm, avocado, sunflower and other cheaper oils were passed off as Italian olive oil. Police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic and posed no health risk, according to a statement by the Guardia Civil. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax authorities, part of what they call Operation Lucerna.[52]
Using tiny print to state the origin of blended oil is used as a legal loophole by manufacturers of adulterated and mixed olive oil.[53]
Journalist Tom Mueller has investigated crime and adulteration in the olive oil business, publishing the article "Slippery Business" in New Yorker magazine,[54] followed by the 2011 book Extra Virginity. On 3 January 2016 Bill Whitaker presented a program on CBS News including interviews with Mueller and with Italian authorities.[55][56] It was reported that in the previous month 5,000 tons of adulterated olive oil had been sold in Italy, and that organised crime was heavily involved—the term "Agrimafia" was used. The point was made by Mueller that the profit margin on adulterated olive oil was three times that on the illegal narcotic drug cocaine. He said that over 50% of olive oil sold in Italy was adulterated, as was 75-80% of that sold in the US. Whitaker reported that 3 samples of "extra virgin olive oil" had been bought in a US supermarket and tested; two of the three samples did not meet the required standard, and one of them—with a top-selling US brand—was exceptionally poor.
Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, over 24 liters per person per year;[57] Spain and Italy, around 14 l; Tunisia, Portugal, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon, around 8 l. Northern Europe and North America consume far less, around 0.7 l, but the consumption of olive oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily.
The main producing and consuming countries are:
| Country | Production in tons (2010)[58] | Production % (2010) | Consumption (2005)[59] | Annual per capita consumption (kg)[60] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| World | 3,269,248 | 100% | 100% | 0.43 |
| Spain | 1,487,000 | 45.5% | 20% | 13.62 |
| Italy | 548,500 | 16.8% | 30% | 12.35 |
| Greece | 352,800 | 10.8% | 9% | 23.7 |
| Syria | 177,400 | 5.4% | 3% | 7 |
| Morocco | 169,900 | 5.2% | 2% | 11.1 |
| Turkey | 161,600 | 4.9% | 2% | 1.2 |
| Tunisia | 160,100 | 4.9% | 2% | 5 |
| Portugal | 66,600 | 2.0% | 2% | 1.8 |
| Algeria | 33,600 | 1.0% | 2% | 7.1 |
| Others | 111,749 | 3.5% | 28% | 1.18 |
Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil that is rancid, so for good extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. The process is generally as follows:
The remaining paste (pomace) still contains a small quantity (about 5–10%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialised chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is not "virgin" but "pomace oil". The term "first press", sometimes found on bottle labels, is today meaningless, as there is no "second" press; it comes from ancient times of stone presses, when virgin oil was the one produced by battering the olives.
The label term "cold-extraction" on extra virgin olive oils indicates that the olive grinding and stirring was done at a temperature of maximum 25 °C (77 °F), as treatment in higher temperatures risks decreasing the olive oils' quality (texture, taste and aroma).[61]
Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed triglyceride esters of oleic acid and palmitic acid and of other fatty acids, along with traces of squalene (up to 0.7%) and sterols (about 0.2% phytosterol and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process.
| Fatty acid | Percentage | ref. |
|---|---|---|
| Oleic acid | 55 to 83% | [62][63] |
| Linoleic acid | 3.5 to 21% | [62][63] |
| Palmitic acid | 7.5 to 20% | [62] |
| Stearic acid | 0.5 to 5% | [62] |
| α-Linolenic acid | 0 to 1.5% | [62] |
Olive oil contains phenolics, such as esters of tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, oleocanthal and oleuropein,[32][64] having acidic properties that give extra-virgin unprocessed olive oil its aroma and bitter, pungent taste.[65] Olive oil is a source of at least 30 phenolic compounds, among which is elenolic acid, a marker for maturation of olives.[32][66] Oleuropein, together with other closely related compounds such as 10-hydroxyoleuropein, ligstroside and 10-hydroxyligstroside, are tyrosol esters of elenolic acid.
Other phenolic constituents include flavonoids, lignans and pinoresinol.[67][68]
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 3,699 kJ (884 kcal) |
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Carbohydrates
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0 g
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Fat
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100 g
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| Saturated | 14 g |
| Monounsaturated | 73 g |
| Polyunsaturated
omega‑3
omega‑6
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11 g
0.8 g
9.8 g
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|
Protein
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0 g
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| Vitamins | |
| Vitamin E |
(93%)
14 mg |
| Vitamin K |
(57%)
60 μg |
| Minerals | |
| Iron |
(4%)
0.56 mg |
|
Link to USDA Database entry
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| Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database |
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One tablespoon of olive oil (13.5 g) contains the following nutritional information according to the USDA:[69]
Olive oil has a long history of being used as a home remedy for skincare. Egyptians used it alongside beeswax as a cleanser, moisturizer, and antibacterial agent since pharaonic times.[70] In ancient Greece, the substance was used during massage, to prevent sports injuries, relieve muscle fatigue, and eliminate lactic acid buildup.[71] In 2000, Japan was the top importer of olive oil in Asia (13,000 tons annually) because consumers there believe both the ingestion and topical application of olive oil to be good for skin and health.[72]
There has been relatively little scientific work done on the effect of olive oil on acne and other skin conditions. However, one study noted that squalene, which is in olive oil,[73] may contribute to relief of seborrheic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis or atopic dermatitis.[74]
Olive oil is popular for use in massaging infants and toddlers, but scientific evidence of its efficacy is mixed. One analysis of olive oil versus mineral oil found that, when used for infant massage, olive oil can be considered a safe alternative to sunflower, grapeseed and fractionated coconut oils. This stands true particularly when it is mixed with a lighter oil like sunflower, which "would have the further effect of reducing the already low levels of free fatty acids present in olive oil".[75] Another trial stated that olive oil lowered the risk of dermatitis for infants in all gestational stages when compared with emollient cream.[76] However, yet another study on adults found that topical treatment with olive oil "significantly damages the skin barrier" when compared to sunflower oil, and that it may make existing atopic dermatitis worse. The researchers concluded that due to the negative outcome in adults, they do not recommend the use of olive oil for the treatment of dry skin and infant massage.[77]
Applying olive oil to the skin does not help prevent or reduce stretch marks.[78]
Olive oil consumption is thought to affect cardiovascular health and blood cholesterol levels.[79][80] Epidemiological studies indicate that a higher proportion of monounsaturated fats in the diet may be linked with a reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease.[81] Apart from olive oil's fat composition, a cause-and-effect relationship in comparison to similar oils has not yet been established with sufficient scientific evidence.[82]
Furthermore, in a comprehensive scientific review by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2011, cause-and-effect relationships have not been adequately established for consumption of olive oil and maintaining 1) normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations, 2) normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides, 3) normal blood HDL-cholesterol concentrations, and 4) normal blood glucose concentrations.[82]
In the United States, producers of olive oil may place the following restricted health claim on product labels:
This decision was announced November 1, 2004, by the Food and Drug Administration after application was made to the FDA by producers.[84] Similar labels are permitted for foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids such as walnuts and hemp seed.[85]
It has been suggested that long-term consumption of small quantities of the polyphenol, oleocanthal, from olive oil may be responsible in part for the low incidence of heart disease associated with a Mediterranean diet,[86] but this relationship remains inadequately supported by clinical research.[82]
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Olive oil is the main cooking oil in countries surrounding the Mediterranean.
Extra virgin olive oil is mostly used as a salad dressing and as an ingredient in salad dressings. It is also used with foods to be eaten cold. If uncompromised by heat, the flavor is stronger. It also can be used for sautéing.
The higher the temperature to which the olive oil is heated, the higher the risk of compromising its taste. When extra virgin olive oil is heated above 210–216 °C (410–421 °F), depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to deteriorated taste. Also, the pronounced taste of extra virgin olive oil is not a taste most people like to associate with their deep fried foods. Refined olive oils are perfectly suited for deep frying foods and should be replaced after several uses.[citation needed]
Choosing a cold-pressed olive oil can be similar to selecting a wine. The flavor of these oils varies considerably and a particular oil may be more suited for a particular dish.
An important issue often not realized in countries that do not produce olive oil is that the freshness makes a big difference. A very fresh oil, as available in an oil producing region, tastes noticeably different from the older oils available elsewhere. In time, oils deteriorate and become stale. One-year-old oil may be still pleasant to the taste, but it is less fragrant than fresh oil. After the first year, olive oil should be used for cooking, not for foods to be eaten cold, like salads.
The taste of the olive oil is influenced by the varietals used to produce the oil and by the moment when the olives are harvested and ground (less ripe olives give more bitter and spicy flavors – riper olives give a sweeter sensation in the oil).
| Vegetable oils | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | Processing Treatment |
Saturated fatty acids[87] |
Mono- unsaturated |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids | Oleic acid (ω-9) |
Smoke point | ||
| Total poly[87] | linolenic acid (ω-3) |
Linoleic acid (ω-6) |
||||||
| Canola (rapeseed) | 7.365 | 63.276 | 28.142 | 10 | 10 | 400 °F (204 °C)[88] | ||
| Coconut | 91.000 | 6.000 | 3.000 | 2 | 6 | 350 °F (177 °C)[88] | ||
| Corn[89] | 12.948 | 27.576 | 54.677 | 1 | 58 | 28 | 450 °F (232 °C) | |
| Cottonseed | 25.900 | 17.800 | 51.900 | 1 | 54 | 19 | 420 °F (216 °C)[89] | |
| Flaxseed/Linseed (European)[90] | 7.500 | 15.500 | 79.000 | 64 | 15 | 11 | 225 °F (107 °C) | |
| Olive | 14.000 | 72.000 | 14.000 | 1.5 | 15 | 380 °F (193 °C)[88] | ||
| Palm | 49.300 | 37.000 | 9.300 | 10 | 40 | 455 °F (235 °C) | ||
| Peanut | 16.900 | 46.200 | 32.000 | 32 | 48 | 437 °F (225 °C)[89] | ||
| Safflower (>70% linoleic) | 8.000 | 15.000 | 75.000 | 410 °F (210 °C)[88] | ||||
| Safflower (high oleic) | 7.541 | 75.221 | 12.820 | 410 °F (210 °C)[88] | ||||
| Soybean | 15.650 | 22.783 | 57.740 | 7 | 50 | 24 | 460 °F (238 °C)[89] | |
| Sunflower (<60% linoleic) | 10.100 | 45.400 | 40.100 | 0.2 | 39.8 | 45.3 | 440 °F (227 °C)[89] | |
| Sunflower (>70% oleic) | 9.859 | 83.689 | 3.798 | 440 °F (227 °C)[89] | ||||
| Cottonseed (hydrogenated)[87] | Hydrogenated | 93.600 | 1.529 | 0.587 | 0.287 | |||
| Palm (hydrogenated) | Hydrogenated | 47.500 | 40.600 | 7.500 | ||||
| Soybean (hydrogenated)[87] | Hydrogenated | 21.100 | 73.700 | 0.400 | 0.096 | |||
| Values as percent (%) by weight of total fat. | ||||||||
Olive oil also has religious symbolism for healing and strength and to consecration—setting a person or place apart for special work. This may be related to its ancient use as a medicinal agent and for cleansing athletes by slathering them in oil then scraping them.
In Jewish observance, olive oil is the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched Menorah in the Mishkan service during the Exodus of the tribes of Israel from Egypt, and later in the permanent Temple in Jerusalem. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and was consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests and stored in special containers. A menorah similar to the Menorah used in the Mishkan is now used during the holiday of Hanukkah that celebrates the miracle of the last of such containers being found during the re-dedication of the Temple (163 BC), when its contents lasted for far longer than they were expected to, allowing more time for more oil to be made. Although candles can be used to light the hanukkiah, oil containers are preferred, to imitate the original Menorah. Another use of oil in Jewish religion is for anointing the kings of the Kingdom of Israel, originating from King David. Tzidkiyahu was the last anointed King of Israel.
The Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches use olive oil for the Oil of Catechumens (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for Baptism) and Oil of the Sick (used to confer the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick or Unction). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent such as balsam is consecrated by bishops as Sacred Chrism, which is used to confer the sacrament of Confirmation (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of Baptism and the ordination of priests and bishops, in the consecration of altars and churches, and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their coronation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Latter-day Saints) and a number of other religions use olive oil when they need to consecrate an oil for anointings.
Eastern Orthodox Christians still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners and in the cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass containing a half-inch of water and filled the rest with olive oil. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by soaking a ball of cotton in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns until all the oil is consumed, whereupon the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a usual offering to churches and cemeteries.
In the Orthodox Church, olive oil is a product not consumed during lent or penance while Orthodox monks use it sparingly in their diet. Exceptions are in feast days and Sundays.
In Islam, olive oil is mentioned in the Quranic verse:
"God is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His Light is as (if there were) a niche and within it a lamp: the lamp is in a glass, the glass as it were a brilliant star, lit from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil would almost glow forth (of itself) though no fire touched it. Light upon Light! God guides to His Light whom He wills. And God sets forth parables for mankind, and God is All-Knower of everything." (سورة النور, An-Noor (The Light), Chapter #24, Verse #35)
Olive oil is also a natural and safe lubricant, and can be used to lubricate machinery that is used within the kitchen (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.) It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents.[92] Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base.[93]
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| リンク元 | 「オリブ油」 |
| 関連記事 | 「olive」 |