| Dysmenorrhea |
| Classification and external resources |
| ICD-10 |
N94.4-N94.6 |
| ICD-9 |
625.3 |
| DiseasesDB |
10634 |
| MedlinePlus |
003150 |
| MeSH |
D004412 |
Dysmenorrhea (dysmenorrhoea or painful periods) is a medical condition of pain during menstruation that interferes with daily activities, as defined by ACOG[1] and others.[2] Still, dysmenorrhea is often defined simply as menstrual pain,[3][4] or at least menstrual pain that is excessive.[5] This article uses the dysmenorrhea definition of menstrual pain that interferes with daily activities, and uses the term menstrual pain as any pain during menstruation whether it is normal or abnormal.
Menstrual pain is often used synonymously with menstrual cramps, but the latter may also refer to menstrual uterine contractions, which are generally of higher strength, duration and frequency than in the rest of the menstrual cycle.[6]
Dysmenorrhea can feature different kinds of pain, including sharp, throbbing, dull, nauseating, burning, or shooting pain. Dysmenorrhea may precede menstruation by several days or may accompany it, and it usually subsides as menstruation tapers off. Dysmenorrhea may coexist with excessively heavy blood loss, known as menorrhagia.
Secondary dysmenorrhea is diagnosed when symptoms are attributable to an underlying disease, disorder, or structural abnormality either within or outside the uterus. Primary dysmenorrhea is diagnosed when none of these are detected.
Contents
- 1 Signs and symptoms
- 2 Classification
- 3 Causes of secondary dysmenorrhea
- 4 Pathophysiology of primary dysmenorrhea
- 5 Diagnosis
- 6 Management
- 6.1 NSAIDs
- 6.2 Hormonal contraceptives
- 6.3 Other
- 6.4 Alternative medicine
- 7 Epidemiology
- 8 References
- 9 External links
Signs and symptoms
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The main symptom of dysmenorrhea is pain concentrated in the lower abdomen, in the umbilical region or the suprapubic region of the abdomen. It is also commonly felt in the right or left abdomen. It may radiate to the thighs and lower back.
Symptoms often co-occurring with menstrual pain include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, headache, dizziness, disorientation, hypersensitivity to sound, light, smell and touch, fainting, and fatigue. Symptoms of dysmenorrhea often begin immediately following ovulation and can last until the end of menstruation. This is because dysmenorrhea is often associated with changes in hormonal levels in the body that occur with ovulation. The use of certain types of birth control pills can prevent the symptoms of dysmenorrhea, because the birth control pills stop ovulation from occurring.
Classification
Dysmenorrhea can be classified as either primary or secondary based on the absence or presence of an underlying cause. Secondary dysmenorrhea is dysmenorrhea which is associated with an existing condition.
Causes of secondary dysmenorrhea
The most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea is endometriosis, which can be visually confirmed by laparoscopy in approximately 70% of adolescents with dysmenorrhea.[7]
Other causes of secondary dysmenorrhea include leiomyoma,[8] adenomyosis,[9] ovarian cysts, and pelvic congestion.[10]
Pathophysiology of primary dysmenorrhea
During a woman's menstrual cycle, the endometrium thickens in preparation for potential pregnancy. After ovulation, if the ovum is not fertilized and there is no pregnancy, the built-up uterine tissue is not needed and thus shed.
Molecular compounds called prostaglandins are released during menstruation, due to the destruction of the endometrial cells, and the resultant release of their contents.[11] Release of prostaglandins and other inflammatory mediators in the uterus cause the uterus to contract. These substances are thought to be a major factor in primary dysmenorrhea.[12] When the uterine muscles contract, they constrict the blood supply to the tissue of the endometrium, which, in turn, breaks down and dies. These uterine contractions continue as they squeeze the old, dead endometrial tissue through the cervix and out of the body through the vagina. These contractions, and the resulting temporary oxygen deprivation to nearby tissues, are responsible for the pain or "cramps" experienced during menstruation.
Compared with other women, women with primary dysmenorrhea have increased activity of the uterine muscle with increased contractility and increased frequency of contractions.[13]
In one research study using MRI, visible features of the uterus were compared in dysmenorrheic and eumenorrheic (normal) participants. The study concluded that in dysmenorrheic patients, visible features on cycle days 1-3 correlated with the degree of pain, and differed significantly from the control group.[14]
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of dysmenorrhea is usually made simply on a medical history of menstrual pain that interferes with daily activities. However, there is no universally accepted gold standard technique for quantifying the severity of menstrual pains.[15] Yet, there are quantification models, called menstrual symptometrics, that can be used to estimate the severity of menstrual pains as well as correlate them with pain in other parts of the body, menstrual bleeding and degree of interference with daily activities.[15]
Further work-up
Once a diagnosis of dysmenorrhea is made, further work-up is required to search for any secondary underlying cause of it, in order to be able to treat it specifically and to avoid aggravation of a perhaps serious underlying cause.
Further work-up includes a specific medical history of symptoms and menstrual cycles and a pelvic exam.[1] Based on results from these, additional exams and tests may be motivated, such as:
- A pap test[1]
- Certain lab tests[1]
- Gynecologic ultrasonography[1]
In some cases, laparoscopy may be required.[1]
Management
NSAIDs
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are effective in relieving the pain of primary dysmenorrhea.[16] They can have side effects of nausea, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, and diarrhea.[17] People who are unable to take the more common NSAIDs may be prescribed a COX-2 inhibitor.[18]
Hormonal contraceptives
Although use of hormonal contraception can improve or relieve symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea,[19][20] a 2001 systematic review found that no conclusions can be made about the efficacy of commonly used modern lower dose combined oral contraceptive pills for primary dysmenorrhea.[21] Norplant[22] and Depo-provera[23][24] are also effective, since these methods often induce amenorrhea. The intrauterine system (Mirena IUD) has been cited as useful in reducing symptoms of dysmenorrhea.[25]
Other
A review indicated the effectiveness of use of transdermal nitroglycerin.[26]
Alternative medicine
A number of alternative therapies have been studied in the treatment of dysmenorrhea.
One review found the effectiveness of acupressure, behavioral interventions, thiamine, vitamin E, topical heat, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is likely while the effects of acupuncture, fish oil, magnets and vitamin B12 is unknown.[27] Spinal manipulation is unlikely to be helpful.[27]
A 2008 systematic review found promising evidence for Chinese herbal medicine for primary dysmenorrhea, but that the evidence was limited by its poor methodological quality.[28]
Behavioral therapies assume that the physiological process underlying dysmenorrhea is influenced by environmental and psychological factors, and that dysmenorrhea can be effectively treated by physical and cognitive procedures that focus on coping strategies for the symptoms rather than on changes to the underlying processes. A 2007 systematic review found some scientific evidence that behavioral interventions may be effective, but that the results should be viewed with caution due to poor quality of the data.[29]
One review found the available evidence for the use of acupuncture to treat dysmenorrhea suggests it may reduce pain, but further research with well designed clinical trials is needed.[30]
Several nutritional supplements have been suggested as effective in treating dysmenorrhea. One review found that Vitamin B1 has been shown to be effective for pain when taken at 100 mg daily based on one large trial. Magnesium supplementation is a promising possible treatment as well, though no strong recommendations can be made for what doses should be used until further trials are completed. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any other herbal or dietary supplement, including omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin E, vitamin B6 among others which have been studied.[31]
Although claims have been made for chiropractic care, under the theory that treating subluxations in the spine may decrease symptoms,[32] a 2006 systematic review found that overall no evidence suggests that spinal manipulation is effective for treatment of primary and secondary dysmenorrhea.[33]
Epidemiology
The prevalence of dysmenorrhea is estimated to be approximately 25% of women.[34] Reports of dysmenorrhea are greatest among individuals in their late teens and 20s, with reports usually declining with age. The prevalence in adolescent females has been reported to be 67.2% by one study[35] and 90% by another.[34] It has been stated that there is no significant difference in prevalence or incidence between races.[34] Yet, a study of Hispanic adolescent females indicated a high prevalence and impact in this group.[36] Another study indicated that dysmenorrhea was present in 36.4% of participants, and was significantly associated with lower age and lower parity.[37] Childbearing is said to relieve dysmenorrhea, but this does not always occur. One study indicated that in nulliparous women with primary dysmenorrhea, the severity of menstrual pain decreased significantly after age 40.[38] A questionnaire concluded that menstrual problems, including dysmenorrhea, were more common in females who had been sexually abused.[39]
A survey in Norway showed that 14 percent of females between the ages of 20 to 35 experience symptoms so severe that they stay home from school or work.[40] Among adolescent girls, dysmenorrhea is the leading cause of recurrent short-term school absence.[41]
References
- ^ a b c d e f Patient Education Pamphlet: Dysmenorrhea By American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, retrieved January 2011
- ^ TheFreeDictionary > dysmenorrhea Citing:
- Jonas: Mosby's Dictionary of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Copyright 2005
- ^ TheFreeDictionary > dysmenorrhea Citing:
- Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Copyright 2008
- Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. Copyright 2007
- The American Heritage Medical Dictionary Copyright 2007
- Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition.
- McGraw-Hill Concise Dictionary of Modern Medicine. Copyright 2002
- ^ eMedicine Specialties > Dysmenorrhea Authors: Andre Holder, Laurel D Edmundson, Mert Erogul. Updated: Dec 31, 2009
- ^ MedlinePlus > Painful menstrual periods Update Date: 9/2/2009 by: Susan Storck. Also reviewed by David Zieve
- ^ medicinenet.com > Menstrual Cramps Retrieved January 2011
- ^ Janssen EB, Rijkers AC, Hoppenbrouwers K, Meuleman C, D'Hooghe TM (2013). "Prevalence of endometriosis diagnosed by laparoscopy in adolescents with dysmenorrhea or chronic pelvic pain: A systematic review". Human Reproduction Update 19 (5): 570–582. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt016. PMID 23727940.
- ^ Hilário SG, Bozzini N, Borsari R, Baracat EC (2008). "Action of aromatase inhibitor for treatment of uterine leiomyoma in perimenopausal patients". Fertil. Steril. 91 (1): 240–3. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.11.006. PMID 18249392.
- ^ Nabeshima H, Murakami T, Nishimoto M, Sugawara N, Sato N (2008). "Successful total laparoscopic cystic adenomyomectomy after unsuccessful open surgery using transtrocar ultrasonographic guiding". J Minim Invasive Gynecol 15 (2): 227–30. doi:10.1016/j.jmig.2007.10.007. PMID 18312998.
- ^ Hacker, Neville F., J. George Moore, and Joseph C. Gambone. Essentials of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 4th ed. Elsevier Saunders, 2004. ISBN 0-7216-0179-0[page needed]
- ^ Lethaby A, Augood C, Duckitt K, Farquhar C (2007). "Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for heavy menstrual bleeding". In Lethaby, Anne. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD000400. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000400.pub2. PMID 17943741.
- ^ Wright, Jason and Solange Wyatt. The Washington Manual Obstetrics and Gynecology Survival Guide. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2003. ISBN 0-7817-4363-X[page needed]
- ^ Rosenwaks Z, Seegar-Jones G (October 1980). "Menstrual pain: its origin and pathogenesis". J Reprod Med 25 (4 Suppl): 207–12. PMID 7001019.
- ^ Kataoka M, Togashi K, Kido A, Nakai A, Fujiwara T, Koyama T, Fujii S (2005). "Dysmenorrhea: evaluation with cine-mode-display MR imaging--initial experience". Radiology 235 (1): 124–31. doi:10.1148/radiol.2351031283. PMID 15731368.
- ^ a b Wyatt KM, Dimmock PW, Hayes-Gill B, Crowe J, O'Brien PM (2002). "Menstrual symptometrics: A simple computer-aided method to quantify menstrual cycle disorders". Fertility and Sterility 78 (1): 96–101. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(02)03161-8. PMID 12095497.
- ^ Marjoribanks J, Proctor M, Farquhar C, Derks RS (2010). "Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for dysmenorrhoea". In Marjoribanks, Jane. Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (1): CD001751. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001751.pub2. PMID 20091521.
- ^ Rossi S, editor. Australian Medicines Handbook 2006. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook; 2006. ISBN 0-9757919-2-3
- ^ Chantler I, Mitchell D, Fuller A (2008). "The effect of three cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors on intensity of primary dysmenorrheic pain". Clin J Pain 24 (1): 39–44. doi:10.1097/AJP.0b013e318156dafc. PMID 18180635.
- ^ Archer DF (November 2006). "Menstrual-cycle-related symptoms: a review of the rationale for continuous use of oral contraceptives". Contraception 74 (5): 359–66. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2006.06.003. PMID 17046376.
- ^ Harel Z (December 2006). "Dysmenorrhea in adolescents and young adults: etiology and management". J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 19 (6): 363–71. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2006.09.001. PMID 17174824.
- ^ Proctor ML, Roberts H, Farquhar CM (2001). "Combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP) as treatment for primary dysmenorrhoea". In Wong, Chooi L. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD002120. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002120. PMID 11687142.
- ^ Power J, French R, Cowan F (2007). "Subdermal implantable contraceptives versus other forms of reversible contraceptives or other implants as effective methods of preventing pregnancy". In Power, Jo. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD001326. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001326.pub2. PMID 17636668.
- ^ Glasier, Anna (2006). "Contraception". In DeGroot, Leslie J.; Jameson, J. Larry (eds.). Endocrinology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 2993–3003. ISBN 0-7216-0376-9.
- ^ Loose, Davis S.; Stancel, George M. (2006). "Estrogens and Progestins". In Brunton, Laurence L.; Lazo, John S.; Parker, Keith L. (eds.). Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1541–1571. ISBN 0-07-142280-3.
- ^ Gupta HP, Singh U, Sinha S (2007). "Laevonorgestrel intra-uterine system--a revolutionary intra-uterine device". J Indian Med Assoc 105 (7): 380, 382–5. PMID 18178990.
- ^ Morgan PJ, Kung R, Tarshis J (2002). "Nitroglycerin as a uterine relaxant: a systematic review". J Obstet Gynaecol Can 24 (5): 403–9. PMID 12196860.
- ^ a b Latthe PM, Champaneria R, Khan KS (Feb 21, 2011). "Dysmenorrhoea". Clinical evidence 2011. PMC 3275141. PMID 21718556.
- ^ Zhu X, Proctor M, Bensoussan A, Wu E, Smith CA (2008). "Chinese herbal medicine for primary dysmenorrhoea". In Zhu, Xiaoshu. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD005288. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005288.pub3. PMID 18425916.
- ^ Proctor ML, Murphy PA, Pattison HM, Suckling J, Farquhar CM (2007). "Behavioural interventions for primary and secondary dysmenorrhoea". In Proctor, Michelle. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD002248. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002248.pub3. PMID 17636702.
- ^ Smith CA, Zhu X, He L, Song J (2011). "Acupuncture for primary dysmenorrhoea". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD007854. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007854.pub2. PMID 21249697.
- ^ Proctor ML, Murphy PA (2001). "Herbal and dietary therapies for primary and secondary dysmenorrhoea". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD002124. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002124. PMID 11687013.
- ^ Chapman-Smith D (2000). "Scope of practice". The Chiropractic Profession: Its Education, Practice, Research and Future Directions. West Des Moines, IA: NCMIC. ISBN 1-892734-02-8. [page needed]
- ^ Proctor ML, Hing W, Johnson TC, Murphy PA (2006). "Spinal manipulation for primary and secondary dysmenorrhoea". In Proctor, Michelle. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 (3): CD002119. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002119.pub3. PMID 16855988.
- ^ a b c eMedicine > Dysmenorrhea By Andre Holder, Laurel D Edmundson and Mert Erogul. Updated: Dec 31, 2009
- ^ Sharma P, Malhotra C, Taneja DK, Saha R (2008). "Problems related to menstruation amongst adolescent girls". Indian J Pediatr 75 (2): 125–9. doi:10.1007/s12098-008-0018-5. PMID 18334791.
- ^ Banikarim C, Chacko MR, Kelder SH (2000). "Prevalence and impact of dysmenorrhea on Hispanic female adolescents". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154 (12): 1226–9. doi:10.1001/archpedi.154.12.1226. PMID 11115307.
- ^ Sule ST, Umar HS, Madugu NH (2007). "Premenstrual symptoms and dysmenorrhoea among Muslim women in Zaria, Nigeria". Ann Afr Med 6 (2): 68–72. doi:10.4103/1596-3519.55713. PMID 18240706.
- ^ Juang CM, Yen MS, Horng HC, Cheng CY, Yuan CC, Chang CM (2006). "Natural progression of menstrual pain in nulliparous women at reproductive age: an observational study". J Chin Med Assoc 69 (10): 484–8. doi:10.1016/S1726-4901(09)70313-2. PMID 17098673.
- ^ Vink CW, Labots-Vogelesang SM, Lagro-Janssen AL (2006). "[Menstruation disorders more frequent in women with a history of sexual abuse]". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (in Dutch; Flemish) 150 (34): 1886–90. PMID 16970013.
- ^ "Mozon: Sykemelder seg på grunn av menssmerter". Mozon. 2004-10-25. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
- ^ French L (2008). "Dysmenorrhea in adolescents: diagnosis and treatment". Paediatr Drugs 10 (1): 1–7. doi:10.2165/00148581-200810010-00001. PMID 18162003.
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dysmenorrhea. |
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Female diseases of the pelvis and genitals (N70–N99, 614–629)
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| Internal |
| Adnexa |
| Ovary |
- Endometriosis of ovary
- Female infertility
- Anovulation
- Poor ovarian reserve
- Mittelschmerz
- Oophoritis
- Ovarian apoplexy
- Ovarian cyst
- Corpus luteum cyst
- Follicular cyst of ovary
- Theca lutein cyst
- Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
- Ovarian torsion
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| Fallopian tube |
- Female infertility
- Fallopian tube obstruction
- Hematosalpinx
- Hydrosalpinx
- Salpingitis
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| Uterus |
| Endometrium |
- Asherman's syndrome
- Dysfunctional uterine bleeding
- Endometrial hyperplasia
- Endometrial polyp
- Endometriosis
- Endometritis
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| menstruation |
- flow
- Amenorrhoea
- Hypomenorrhea
- Oligomenorrhea
- pain
- timing
- Menometrorrhagia
- Menorrhagia
- Metrorrhagia
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| Myometrium |
|
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| Parametrium |
|
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| Cervix |
- Cervical dysplasia
- Cervical incompetence
- Cervical polyp
- Cervicitis
- Female infertility
- Nabothian cyst
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| General |
- Hematometra / Pyometra
- Retroverted uterus
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| Vagina |
- Hematocolpos / Hydrocolpos
- Leukorrhea / Vaginal discharge
- Vaginitis
- Atrophic vaginitis
- Bacterial vaginosis
- Candidal vulvovaginitis
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| Sexual dysfunction |
- Dyspareunia
- Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
- Sexual arousal disorder
- Vaginismus
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- Fistulae
- Rectovaginal
- Vesicovaginal
- Prolapse
- Cystocele
- Enterocele
- Rectocele
- Sigmoidocele
- Urethrocele
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| Other / general |
- Pelvic congestion syndrome
- Pelvic inflammatory disease
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| External |
| Vulva |
- Bartholin's cyst
- Kraurosis vulvae
- Vestibular papillomatosis
- Vulvitis
- Vulvodynia
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| Clitoral hood or Clitoris |
- Clitoral phimosis
- Clitorism
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noco/cong/npls, sysi/epon
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proc/asst, drug (G1/G2B/G3CD)
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Menstrual cycle
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| Events and phases |
- Menstruation
- Follicular phase
- Ovulation
- Luteal phase
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| Life stages |
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| Tracking |
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Signs
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- Basal body temperature
- Cervical mucus
- Mittelschmerz
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Systems
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- Fertility awareness
- Calendar-based methods
- Billings Ovulation Method
- Creighton Model
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| Suppression |
- Extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive
- Lactational amenorrhea
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| Disorders |
- Amenorrhoea
- Anovulation
- Dysmenorrhea
- Hypomenorrhea
- Irregular menstruation
- Menometrorrhagia
- Menorrhagia
- Metrorrhagia
- Oligomenorrhea
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| Related events |
- Folliculogenesis
- Menstrual synchrony
- Premenstrual syndrome / Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
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| In culture and religion |
- Chhaupadi
- Menstrual taboo
- Niddah
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noco/cong/npls, sysi/epon
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proc/asst, drug (G1/G2B/G3CD)
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