| Interneuron |
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A spinal interneuron (relay neuron) forms part of a reflex arc
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| Details |
| Location |
Nervous system |
| Identifiers |
| MeSH |
A08.663.358 |
| Code |
TH H2.00.06.1.00058 |
| NeuroLex ID |
Intrinsic neuron role |
Dorlands
/Elsevier |
i_10/12455676 |
| Anatomical terminology |
An interneuron (also called relay neuron, association neuron, connector neuron or local circuit neuron) is one of the three classifications of neurons found in the human body. Interneurons create neural circuits, enabling communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system (CNS). They have been found to function in reflexes, neuronal oscillations,[1] and neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain. Interneurons can be further broken down into two groups: local interneurons, or relay interneurons.[2] Local interneurons have short axons and form circuits with nearby neurons and analyze small pieces of information.[3] Relay interneurons have long axons and connect circuits of neurons in one region of the brain with those in other regions.[3] The interaction between interneurons allow the brain to perform involved functions such as learning, and decisive behaviors.
Contents
- 1 Interneurons in the Central Nervous System
- 1.1 Interneurons of the spinal cord
- 1.2 Interneurons of the cortex
- 1.3 Interneurons of the cerebellum
- 1.4 Interneurons of the striatum
- 2 Interneurons and Reflexes
- 2.1 The Withdrawal Reflex
- 3 References
Interneurons in the Central Nervous System
When contrasted with the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the neurons of the CNS, including the brain, are all interneurons. Interneurons in the CNS are primarily inhibitory, and use the neurotransmitter GABA or glycine. However, excitatory interneurons using glutamate in the CNS also exist, as do interneurons releasing neuromodulators like acetylcholine.
In 2008, a nomenclature for the features of GABAergic cortical interneurons was proposed, called Petilla terminology.[4]
Interneurons of the spinal cord
- 1a Inhibitory Neuron: Found in Lamina VII. Responsible for inhibiting antagonist motor neuron. 1a spindle afferents activate 1a inhibitory neuron.
- 1b Inhibitory Neuron: Found in Lamina V, VI, VII. afferent or Golgi tendon organ activates it.
Interneurons of the cortex
- Parvalbumin-expressing interneurons
- CCK-expressing interneurons
- VIP-expressing interneurons
- SOM-expressing interneurons
Interneurons of the cerebellum
- Molecular layer interneurons (basket cells, stellate cells)
- Golgi cells
- Granule cells
- Lugaro cells
- Unipolar brush cells
Interneurons of the striatum
- Parvalbumin-expressing interneurons[5]
- Cholinergic interneurons[6][7]
- Tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing interneurons[8]
- Calretinin-expressing interneurons[9]
- Nitric oxide synthase-expressing interneurons[9]
Interneurons and Reflexes
In a normal neural pathway, cerebral neurons found in the frontal lobe and primary motor cortex send a signal to motor neurons in the periphery (another term for the PNS) to elicit motor movements. The movement then sends a response signal back to the brain allowing the cerebrum to interpret the action. Of course this entire communication circuit occurs in a few milliseconds. In a reflex, however, signals from the periphery do not need to travel to the brain for interpretation, rather the signal reaches the spinal cord, who interprets the action.[citation needed]
The Withdrawal Reflex
This reflex deals with the removal of your hand from a painful stimulus such as a hot stovetop. In this situation, the sensory neurons include thermoreceptors and nociceptors to detect the presence of a hot stimulus or a painful stimulus. When the dendrites of a sensory neuron are stimulated by (for instance) a hot sensation, the neuron propagates an action potential down the neuron's axon to excite local interneurons. These interneurons communicate with other interneurons in the spinal cord to allow for a quick response. Once interpreted, the interneurons from the spinal cord send a response signal to the motor neurons in your hand. The effector motor neurons interact with the myofibrils in your hand's myocytes at the neuromuscular junction to elicit a physiological reaction. When the neuromodulator, acetylcholine, is released, it depolarizes your myofibrils, causing a muscle contraction. The muscle contraction causes you to withdrawal your hand from the hot stovetop.[10]
The knee jerk reaction is a special type of reflex called a myotatic spinal reflex.[11] In this situation, the sensory neurons include thermoreceptors and nociceptors to detect the presence of a hot stimulus or a painful stimulus. Once the stimulus is detected, a message is sent down the afferent axon to that neurons terminal buttons, which are located in the spinal cord.[10] The terminal buttons of the sensory neuron release an excitatory neurotransmitter like glutamate which stimulates the interneuron, causing the interneuron to fire. Once interpreted, the interneurons from the spinal cord send a response signal to the motor neurons in your hand. The effector motor neurons interact with the myofibrils in your hand's myocytes at the neuromuscular junction to elicit a physiological reaction. When the neuromodulator, acetylcholine, is released, it depolarizes your myofibrils, causing a muscle contraction. The muscle contraction causes you to withdrawal a limb from the painful stimulus.[10]
References
- ^ Whittington, M.A; Traub, R.D; Kopell, N; Ermentrout, B; Buhl, E.H (2000). "Inhibition-based rhythms: Experimental and mathematical observations on network dynamics". International Journal of Psychophysiology 38 (3): 315–36. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00173-2. PMID 11102670.
- ^ Carlson, Neil R. (2013). Physiology of Behavior (11th ed.). Pearson Higher Education. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-205-23939-9.
- ^ a b Kandel, Eric; Schwartz, James; Jessell, Thomas, eds. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York City, New York: McGraw Hill Companies. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.
- ^ Ascoli, Giorgio A.; Alonso-Nanclares, Lidia; Anderson, Stewart A.; Barrionuevo, German; Benavides-Piccione, Ruth; Burkhalter, Andreas; Buzsáki, György; Cauli, Bruno; Defelipe, Javier; Fairén, Alfonso; Feldmeyer, Dirk; Fishell, Gord; Fregnac, Yves; Freund, Tamas F.; Gardner, Daniel; Gardner, Esther P.; Goldberg, Jesse H.; Helmstaedter, Moritz; Hestrin, Shaul; Karube, Fuyuki; Kisvárday, Zoltán F.; Lambolez, Bertrand; Lewis, David A.; Marin, Oscar; Markram, Henry; Muñoz, Alberto; Packer, Adam; Petersen, Carl C. H.; Rockland, Kathleen S. et al. (2008). "Petilla terminology: Nomenclature of features of GABAergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex". Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9 (7): 557–68. doi:10.1038/nrn2402. PMC 2868386. PMID 18568015.
- ^ Tepper, James M.; Koós, Tibor (1999). "Inhibitory control of neostriatal projection neurons by GABAergic interneurons". Nature Neuroscience 2 (5): 467–72. doi:10.1038/8138. PMID 10321252.
- ^ Zhou, Fu-Ming; Wilson, Charles J.; Dani, John A. (2002). "Cholinergic interneuron characteristics and nicotinic properties in the striatum". Journal of Neurobiology 53 (4): 590–605. doi:10.1002/neu.10150. PMID 12436423.
- ^ English, Daniel F; Ibanez-Sandoval, Osvaldo; Stark, Eran; Tecuapetla, Fatuel; Buzsáki, György; Deisseroth, Karl; Tepper, James M; Koos, Tibor (2011). "GABAergic circuits mediate the reinforcement-related signals of striatal cholinergic interneurons". Nature Neuroscience 15 (1): 123–30. doi:10.1038/nn.2984. PMC 3245803. PMID 22158514.
- ^ Ibanez-Sandoval, O.; Tecuapetla, F.; Unal, B.; Shah, F.; Koos, T.; Tepper, J. M. (2010). "Electrophysiological and Morphological Characteristics and Synaptic Connectivity of Tyrosine Hydroxylase-Expressing Neurons in Adult Mouse Striatum". Journal of Neuroscience 30 (20): 6999–7016. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5996-09.2010. PMID 20484642.
- ^ a b Ibáñez-Sandoval, Osvaldo; Koós, Tibor; Tecuapetla, Fatuel; Tepper, James M. (2010). "Heterogeneity and Diversity of Striatal GABAergic Interneurons". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 4. doi:10.3389/fnana.2010.00150.
- ^ a b c Carlson, Neil R. (2013). Physiology of Behavior (11th ed.). Pearson Higher Education. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-205-23939-9.
- ^ Purves, Dale; Augustine, George J.; Fitzpatrick, David; Hall, William C.; LaMantia, Anthony-Samuel; McNamara, James O.; White, Leonard E., eds. (2008). Neuroscience (4th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assocaites. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-87893-697-7.
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The spinal cord
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| General features |
- Cervical enlargement
- Lumbar enlargement
- Conus medullaris
- Filum terminale
- Cauda equina
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| Grey matter |
| Posterior grey column |
- Marginal nucleus
- Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
- Nucleus proprius
- Spinal lamina V
- Spinal lamina VI
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| Lateral grey column |
- Intermediolateral nucleus
- Posterior thoracic nucleus
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| Anterior grey column |
- Interneuron
- Alpha motor neuron
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| Other |
- Rexed laminae
- Central gelatinous substance
- Gray commissure
- Central canal
- Terminal ventricle
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| White matter |
| Sensory |
| Posterior |
- Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway:
- Gracile
- Cuneate
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| Lateral: |
- Spinocerebellar
- Spinothalamic
- Posterolateral
- Spinotectal
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- Spinoreticular tract
- Spino-olivary tract
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| Motor |
| Lateral |
- Corticospinal
- Extrapyramidal
- Rubrospinal
- Olivospinal
- Raphespinal
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| Anterior |
- Corticospinal
- Extrapyramidal
- Vestibulospinal
- Reticulospinal
- Tectospinal
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| Both |
- Anterior white commissure
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| External features |
- Ventral
- Anterior median fissure
- Anterolateral sulcus
- Dorsal
- Posterior median sulcus
- Posterolateral sulcus
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Index of the central nervous system
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| Description |
- Anatomy
- meninges
- cortex
- association fibers
- commissural fibers
- lateral ventricles
- basal ganglia
- diencephalon
- mesencephalon
- pons
- cerebellum
- medulla
- spinal cord
- Physiology
- Development
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| Disease |
- Cerebral palsy
- Meningitis
- Demyelinating diseases
- Seizures and epilepsy
- Headache
- Stroke
- Sleep
- Congenital
- Injury
- Neoplasms and cancer
- Other
- Symptoms and signs
- head and neck
- eponymous
- lesions
- Tests
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| Treatment |
- Procedures
- Drugs
- general anesthetics
- analgesics
- addiction
- epilepsy
- cholinergics
- migraine
- Parkinson's
- vertigo
- other
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