WordNet
- a chemical used to kill insects (同)insect_powder
- a chemical used to kill pests (as rodents or insects)
PrepTutorEJDIC
- 殺虫剤
- 殺虫剤
Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/04/17 15:02:31」(JST)
wiki en
For other uses, see Insecticide (disambiguation).
FLIT manual spray pump for insecticides from 1928
An insecticide is a substance used to kill insects.[1] They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in agricultural 20th century's productivity.[2] Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; some concentrate along the food chain.
Insecticides can be classified in two major groups as systemic insecticide which have residual or long term activity and contact insecticides, which have no residual activity.
Furthermore one can distinguish natural insecticides, such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem extracts, made by plants as defenses against insects, inorganic insecticides, which are metals, versus organic insecticides, which are organic chemical compounds mostly working by contact.
The mode of action describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest. It provides another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action is important in understanding whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds and mammals.
For products that repel rather than kill insects see insect repellents.
Contents
- 1 Type of activity
- 2 Major classes
- 2.1 Organochlorides
- 2.2 Organophosphates and carbamates
- 2.3 Pyrethroids
- 2.4 Neonicotinoids
- 2.5 Ryanoids
- 2.6 Plant-incorporated protectants
- 3 Insect growth regulators
- 4 Biological insecticides
- 4.1 Bacterial insecticides
- 5 Environmental effects
- 5.1 Effects on nontarget species
- 5.2 DDT
- 5.3 Pollinator decline
- 6 Individual insecticides
- 6.1 Organochlorides
- 6.2 Organophosphates
- 6.3 Carbamates
- 6.4 Pyrethroids
- 6.5 Neonicotinoids
- 6.6 Ryanoids
- 6.7 Insect growth regulators
- 6.8 Plant-derived
- 6.9 Biologicals
- 6.10 Other
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 Further reading
- 10 External links
Type of activity
Systemic insecticides become incorporated and distributed systemically throughout the whole plant. When insects feed on the plant, they ingest the insecticide. Systemic insecticides produced by transgenic plants are called plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs). For instance, a gene that codes for a specific Bacillus thuringiensis biocidal protein was introduced into corn and other species. The plant manufactures the protein, which kills the insect when consumed.[3] Systemic insecticides have activity pertaining to their residue which is called "residual activity" or long-term activity.
Contact insecticides are toxic to insects upon direct contact. These can be inorganic insecticides, which are metals and include arsenates, copper and fluorine compounds, which are less commonly used, and the commonly used sulfur. Contact insecticides can be organic insecticides, i.e. organic chemical compounds, synthetically produced, and comprising the largest numbers of pesticides used today. Or they can be natural compounds like pyrethrum, neem oil etc. Contact insecticides usually have no residual activity.
Efficacy can be related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets, such as aerosols often improving performance.[4][better source needed]
Major classes
Organochlorides
The best known organochloride, DDT, was created by Swiss scientist Paul Müller. For this discovery, he was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.[5] DDT was introduced in 1944. It functions by opening sodium channels in the insect's nerve cells.[6] The contemporaneous rise of the chemical industry facilitated large-scale production of DDT and related chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Organophosphates and carbamates
Organophosphates are another large class of contact insecticides. These also target the insect's nervous system. Organophosphates interfere with the enzymes acetylcholinesterase and other cholinesterases, disrupting nerve impulses and killing or disabling the insect. Organophosphate insecticides and chemical warfare nerve agents (such as sarin, tabun, soman, and VX) work in the same way. Organophosphates have a cumulative toxic effect to wildlife, so multiple exposures to the chemicals amplifies the toxicity.[7] In the US, organophosphate use declined with the rise of substitutes.[8]
Carbamate insecticides have similar mechanisms to organophosphates, but have a much shorter duration of action and are somewhat less toxic.[citation needed]
Pyrethroids
Pyrethroid pesticides mimic the insecticidal activity of the natural compound pyrethrum. These compounds are nonpersistent sodium channel modulators and are less toxic than organophosphates and carbamates. Compounds in this group are often applied against household pests.[9]
Neonicotinoids
Neonicotinoids are synthetic analogues of the natural insecticide nicotine (with much lower acute mammalian toxicity and greater field persistence). These chemicals are acetylcholine receptor agonists. They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, with rapid action (minutes-hours). They are applied as sprays, drenches, seed and soil treatments. Treated insects exhibit leg tremors, rapid wing motion, stylet withdrawal (aphids), disoriented movement, paralysis and death.[10] Imidacloprid may be the most common. It has recently come under scrutiny for allegedly pernicious effects on honeybees[11] and its potential to increase the susceptibility of rice to planthopper attacks.[12]
Ryanoids
Ryanoids are synthetic analogues with the same mode of action as ryanodine, a naturally occurring insecticide extracted from Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae). They bind to calcium channels in cardiac and skeletal muscle, blocking nerve transmission. Only one such insecticide is currently registered, Rynaxypyr, generic name chlorantraniliprole.[13]
Plant-incorporated protectants
Transgenic crops that act as insecticides began in 1996 with Bt potato that produces the Cry protein, derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which is toxic to beetle larvae such as the Colorado Potato Beetle. The technique has been expanded to include the use of RNA interference RNAi that fatally silences crucial insect genes. RNAi likely evolved as a defense against viruses. Midgut cells in many larvae take up the molecules and help spread the signal. The technology can target only insects that have the silenced sequence, as was demonstrated when a particular RNAi affected only one of four fruit fly species. The technique is expected to replace many other insecticides, which are losing effectiveness due to the spread of pesticide resistance.[14]
Insect growth regulators
Insect growth regulator (IGR) is a term coined to include insect hormone mimics and an earlier class of chemicals, the benzoylphenyl ureas, which inhibit chitin(exoskeleton) biosynthesis in insects. Diflubenzuron is a member of the latter class, used primarily to control caterpillars that are pests. The most successful insecticides in this class are the juvenoids (juvenile hormone analogues). Of these, methoprene is most widely used. It has no observable acute toxicity in rats and is approved by World Health Organization (WHO) for use in drinking water cisterns to combat malaria. Most of its uses are to combat insects where the adult is the pest, including mosquitoes, several fly species, and fleas. Two very similar products, hydroprene and kinoprene, are used for controlling species such as cockroaches and white flies. Methoprene was registered with the EPA in 1975. Virtually no reports of resistance have been filed. A more recent type of IGR is the ecdysone agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), which is used in forestry and other applications for control of caterpillars, which are far more sensitive to its hormonal effects than other insect orders.
Biological insecticides
Many plants exude substances to repel insects. Premier examples are substances activated by the enzyme myrosinase. This enzyme converts glucosinolates to various compounds that are toxic to herbivorous insects. One product of this enzyme is allyl isothiocyanate, the pungent ingredient in horseradish sauces.
Biosynthesis of antifeedants by the action of myrosinase.
The myrosinase is released only upon crushing the flesh of horseradish. Since allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant as well as the insect, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme.[15]
In general, tree rosin is considered a natural insecticide. To be specific, the production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the defense response against insect attack and fungal pathogen infection.[16]
Bacterial insecticides
Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterial disease that affects Lepidopterans and some other insects. Toxins produced by strains of this bacterium are used as a larvicide against caterpillars, beetles, and mosquitoes. Toxins from Saccharopolyspora spinosa are isolated from fermentations and sold as Spinosad. Because these toxins have little effect on other organisms, they are considered more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides. The toxin from B. thuringiensis (Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of genetic engineering. Other biological insecticides include products based on entomopathogenic fungi (e.g., Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae), nematodes (e.g., Steinernema feltiae) and viruses (e.g., Cydia pomonella granulovirus).[citation needed]
Environmental effects
Effects on nontarget species
Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it.[7]
Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.[7]
DDT
Main article: DDT
The development of DDT was motivated by desire to replace more dangerous or less effective alternatives. DDT was introduced to replace lead and arsenic-based compounds, which were in widespread use in the early 1940s.[17]
DDT was brought to public attention by Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring. One side-effect of DDT is to reduce the thickness of shells on the eggs of predatory birds. The shells sometimes become too thin to be viable, reducing bird populations. This occurs with DDT and related compounds due to the process of bioaccumulation, wherein the chemical, due to its stability and fat solubility, accumulates in organisms' fatty tissues. Also, DDT may biomagnify, which causes progressively higher concentrations in the body fat of animals farther up the food chain. The near-worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT and related chemicals has allowed some of these birds, such as the peregrine falcon, to recover in recent years. A number of organochlorine pesticides have been banned from most uses worldwide. Globally they are controlled via the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants. These include: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene.[citation needed]
Pollinator decline
Insecticides can kill bees and may be a cause of pollinator decline, the loss of bees that pollinate plants, and colony collapse disorder (CCD),[18] in which worker bees from a beehive or Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators means a reduction in crop yields.[18] Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect bee foraging behavior.[19] However, research into the causes of CCD was inconclusive as of June 2007.[20]
Individual insecticides
OrganochloridesSee also: Category:Organochloride insecticides
OrganophosphatesSee also: Category:Organophosphate insecticides
Carbamates
|
Pyrethroids
Neonicotinoids
Ryanoids
Insect growth regulators
Plant-derived
Biologicals
Other
|
See also
- Integrated pest management
- Fogger
- Index of pesticide articles
- Endangered arthropod
- Pesticide application
References
| This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2010) |
- ^ IUPAC (2006). "GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO PESTICIDES". IUPAC. p. 2123. Retrieved January 2014.
- ^ van Emden, H.F.; Peakall, David B. (30 June 1996). Beyond Silent Spring. Springer. ISBN 978-0-412-72800-6.
- ^ Plant Incorporated Protectants
- ^ "dropdata.org". dropdata.org. Retrieved 2011-01-05.
- ^ Karl Grandin, ed. (1948). "Paul Müller Biography". Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
- ^ Vijverberg et al. (1982). "Similar mode of action of pyrethroids and DDT on sodium channel gating in myelinated nerves". Nature 295 (295): 601. Bibcode:1982Natur.295..601V. doi:10.1038/295601a0. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
- ^ a b c Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL. Wildlife & pesticides - Peanuts. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved on 14 October 2007.
- ^ "Infographic: Pesticide Planet". Science 341 (6147): 730–731. 2013. doi:10.1126/science.341.6147.730. PMID 23950524. edit
- ^ Class, Thomas J.; Kintrup, J. (1991). "Pyrethroids as household insecticides: analysis, indoor exposure and persistence". Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry 340 (340): 446. doi:10.1007/BF00322420. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
- ^ Fishel,F.M. 2009. Pesticide Toxicity Profile: Neonicotinoid Pesticides IFAS Publication #PI-80
- ^ Insecticides taking toll on honeybees
- ^ Yao, Cheng; Shi, Zhao-Peng; Jiang, Li-Ben; Ge, Lin-Quan; Wu, Jin-Cai; Jahn, Gary C. (20 January 2012). "Possible connection between imidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 102 (3): 213–219. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.01.003. ISSN 0048-3575. PMC 3334832. PMID 22544984.
- ^ "Pesticide Fact Sheet- chlorantraniliprole". http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/factsheets/chloran.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-14.
- ^ Kupferschmidt, K. (2013). "A Lethal Dose of RNA". Science 341 (6147): 732–3. doi:10.1126/science.341.6147.732. PMID 23950525. edit
- ^ Cole Rosemary A (1976). "Isothiocyanates, nitriles and thiocyanates as products of autolysis of glucosinolates in Cruciferae". Phytochemutry 15: 759–762. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)94437-6.
- ^ Trapp, S.; Croteau, R. (2001). "Defensive Biosynthesis of Resin in Conifers". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 52 (1): 689–724. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.52.1.689. PMID 11337413.
- ^ Metcalf, Robert L. (2002). "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Wiley-VCH). doi:10.1002/14356007.a14_263. ISBN 3527306730.
|chapter=ignored (help) - ^ a b Wells M (March 11, 2007). "Vanishing bees threaten US crops". www.bbc.co.uk (BBC News). Retrieved 19 September 2007.
- ^ Colin, M. E.; Bonmatin, J. M.; Moineau, I. et al. (2004). "A method to quantify and analyze the foraging activity of honey bees: Relevance to the sublethal effects induced by systemic insecticides". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 47 (3): 387–395. doi:10.1007/s00244-004-3052-y. PMID 15386133.
- ^ Oldroyd, B.P. (2007). "What's Killing American Honey Bees?". PLoS Biology 5 (6): e168. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050168. PMC 1892840. PMID 17564497.
- ^ a b c d "Cinnamon Oil Kills Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
- ^ "Cornelia Dick-Pfaff: Wohlriechender Mückentod, 19.07.2004".
- ^ "Oregano Oil Works As Well As Synthetic Insecticides To Tackle Common Beetle Pest". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
- ^ "Almond farmers seek healthy bees". BBC News. 2006-03-08. Retrieved 2010-01-05.
Further reading
- McWilliams, James E., "‘The Horizon Opened Up Very Greatly’: Leland O. Howard and the Transition to Chemical Insecticides in the United States, 1894–1927," Agricultural History, 82 (Fall 2008), 468–95.
External links
| Look up insecticide in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
| Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Insecticide. |
- InsectBuzz.com - Daily updated news on insects and their relatives, including information on insecticides and their alternatives
- International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)
- Pestworld.org – Official site of the National Pest Management Association
- Classification of insecticides
- Streaming online video about efforts to reduce insecticide use in rice in Bangladesh. on Windows Media Player, on RealPlayer
- How Insecticides Work – Has a thorough explanation on how insecticides work.
- University of California Integrated pest management program
- Using Insecticides, Michigan State University Extension
- Example of Insecticide application in the Tsubo-en Zen garden (Japanese dry rock garden) in Lelystad, The Netherlands.
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UpToDate Contents
全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.
- 1. 有機リン剤およびカルバメート中毒 organophosphate and carbamate poisoning
- 2. 有機食品と小児 organic foods and children
- 3. 米国における労働衛生および環境衛生に関する問題についての情報および教材 information and educational resources for occupational and environmental health issues in the united states
- 4. 天疱瘡の病因、臨床症状、および診断 pathogenesis clinical manifestations and diagnosis of pemphigus
- 5. 流行地域におけるマラリアの疫学、予防、および管理 epidemiology prevention and control of malaria in endemic areas
English Journal
- Immobilization of rat brain acetylcholinesterase on ZnS and poly(indole-5-carboxylic acid) modified Au electrode for detection of organophosphorus insecticides.
- Chauhan N, Narang J, Pundir CS.SourceDepartment of Biochemistry, M. D. University, Rohtak 124 001, Haryana, India.
- Biosensors & bioelectronics.Biosens Bioelectron.2011 Nov 15;29(1):82-8. Epub 2011 Aug 3.
- A novel, highly sensitive amperometric biosensor for detection of organophosphorus (OP) compounds has been constructed, based on rat brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) immobilized onto nanocomposite of ZnS-nanoparticles (ZnSNPs) and poly(indole-5-carboxylic acid) electrodeposited on Au electrode. In
- PMID 21873044
- Desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in central nervous system neurons of the stick insect (Carausius morosus) by imidacloprid and sulfoximine insecticides.
- Oliveira EE, Schleicher S, Buschges A, Schmidt J, Kloppenburg P, Salgado VL.SourceInstitute for Zoology, Cologne Biocenter, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC) and Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Germany.
- Insect biochemistry and molecular biology.Insect Biochem Mol Biol.2011 Nov;41(11):872-80. Epub 2011 Aug 23.
- Imidacloprid, sulfoxaflor and two experimental sulfoximine insecticides caused generally depressive symptoms in stick insects, characterized by stillness and weakness, while also variably inducing postural changes such as persistent ovipositor opening, leg flexion or extension and abdomen bending th
- PMID 21878389
Japanese Journal
- 〈資料〉表計算ソフトを使用した農薬管理システムの構築
- 大宮 秀昭,安達 よしえ,伊藤 百世,Ohmiya Hideaki,Adachi Yoshie,Ito Momoyo,オオミヤ ヒデアキ,アダチ ヨシエ,イトウ モモヨ
- 筑波大学農林技術センター研究報告 (24), 25-31, 2011-03-31
- NAID 120002971098
- タイのAedes (ヤブカ)属蚊の殺虫剤感受性の現状
- Raweewan Srisawat,Narumon Komalamisra,Theerawit Phanphoowong,高崎 智彦,Lucky Ronald Runtuwene,倉根 一郎,成田 弘成,江下 優樹
- 日本赤十字豊田看護大学紀要 6(1), 31-37, 2011-03-31
- デング熱の伝播を止めるのに現在使われている方法は、流行地域に殺虫剤を噴霧することである。そのような場合、媒介昆虫の殺虫剤感受性についての情報があれば、適切な殺虫剤を散布できるであろう。このことは対策プログラムの重要な要素でもある。そこで、WHO 感受性評価キットを使って、ネッタイシマカAedes aegypti とヒトスジシマカAe.albopictus の殺虫剤に対する感受性を調べた。2008 …
- NAID 110008439809
Related Links
- An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides ...
Related Pictures
★リンクテーブル★
| リンク元 | 「pesticide」「殺虫薬」「殺虫剤」 |
| 拡張検索 | 「organophosphate insecticide」「organophosphorus insecticide」 |
| 関連記事 | 「insecticides」 |
「pesticide」
「殺虫薬」
- 英
- insecticide、pesticide
- 関
- 殺虫剤、農薬
「殺虫剤」
- 英
- insecticide
- ラ
- insectifuga
「organophosphate insecticide」
「organophosphorus insecticide」
「insecticides」
- 関
- Organophosphate poisoning