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inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movements; unsteady movements and staggering gait (同)ataxy, dyssynergia, motor_ataxia

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/12/17 00:17:55」(JST)

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Ataxia (from Greek α- [a negative prefix] + -τάξις [order] = "lack of order") is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of the parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum. Several possible causes exist for these patterns of neurological dysfunction. Dystaxia is a mild degree of ataxia.^[1]

1 Types
- 1.1 Cerebellar
- 1.2 Sensory
- 1.3 Vestibular
2 Causes
- 2.1 Focal lesions
- 2.2 Exogenous substances
- 2.3 Radiation poisoning
- 2.4 Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency
- 2.5 Hypothyroidism
- 2.6 Causes of isolated sensory ataxia
- 2.7 Non-hereditary cerebellar degeneration
- 2.8 Hereditary ataxias
- 2.9 Arnold-Chiari malformation
- 2.10 Wilson's disease
- 2.11 Gluten ataxia
- 2.12 Sodium-potassium pump
3 Treatment
4 Other uses
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

Types

Cerebellar

The term cerebellar ataxia is used to indicate ataxia that is due to dysfunction of the cerebellum. The cerebellum is responsible for integrating a significant amount of neural information that is used to coordinate smoothly ongoing movements and to participate in motor planning. Although ataxia is not present with all cerebellar lesions, many conditions affecting the cerebellum do produce ataxia.^[2] People with cerebellar ataxia may have trouble regulating the force, range, direction, velocity and rhythm of muscle contractions.^[3] This results in a characteristic type of irregular, uncoordinated movement that can manifest itself in many possible ways, such as asthenia, asynergy, delayed reaction time, and dyschronometria.^{[citation needed]} Individuals with cerebellar ataxia could also display instability of gait, difficulty with eye movements, dysarthria, dysphagia, hypotonia, dysmetria and dysdiadochokinesia.^[2] These deficits can vary depending on which cerebellar structures have been damaged, and whether the lesion is bilateral or unilateral.

People with cerebellar ataxia may initially present with poor balance, which could be demonstrated as an inability to stand on one leg or perform tandem gait. As the condition progresses, walking is characterized by a widened base and high stepping, as well as staggering and lurching from side to side.^[2] Turning is also problematic and could result in falls. As cerebellar ataxia becomes severe, great assistance and effort are needed to stand and walk.^[2] Dysarthria, an impairment with articulation, may also be present and is characterized by "scanning" speech that consists of slower rate, irregular rhythm and variable volume.^[2] There may also be slurring of speech, tremor of the voice and ataxic respiration. Cerebellar ataxia could result with incoordination of movement, particularly in the extremities. There is overshooting with finger to nose testing, and heel to shin testing; thus, dysmetria is evident.^[2] Impairments with alternating movements (dysdiadochokinesia), as well as dysrhythmia, may also be displayed. There may also be tremor of the head and trunk (titubation) in individuals with cerebellar ataxia.^[2]

It is thought that dysmetria is caused by a deficit in the control of interaction torques in multijoint motion.^[4] Interaction torques are created at an associated joint when the primary joint is moved. For example, if a movement required reaching to touch a target in front of the body, flexion at the shoulder would create a torque at the elbow, while extension of the elbow would create a torque at the wrist. These torques increase as the speed of movement increases and must be compensated and adjusted for to create coordinated movement. This may, therefore, explain decreased coordination at higher movement velocities and accelerations.

Dysfunction of the vestibulocerebellum (flocculonodular lobe) impairs the balance and the control of eye movements. This presents itself with postural instability, in which the person tends to separate his/her feet upon standing, to gain a wider base and to avoid titubation (bodily oscillations tending to be forward-backward ones). The instability is therefore worsened when standing with the feet together, regardless of whether the eyes are open or closed. This is a negative Romberg's test, or more accurately, it denotes the individual's inability to carry out the test, because the individual feels unstable even with open eyes.^{[citation needed]}
Dysfunction of the spinocerebellum (vermis and associated areas near the midline) presents itself with a wide-based "drunken sailor" gait (called truncal ataxia),^[5] characterised by uncertain starts and stops, lateral deviations, and unequal steps. As a result of this gait impairment, falling is a concern in patients with ataxia. Studies examining falls in this population show that 74-93% of patients have fallen at least once in the past year and up to 60% admit to fear of falling.^[6]^[7]
Dysfunction of the cerebrocerebellum (lateral hemispheres) presents as disturbances in carrying out voluntary, planned movements by the extremities (called appendicular ataxia).^[5] These include:
- intention tremor (coarse trembling, accentuated over the execution of voluntary movements, possibly involving the head and eyes as well as the limbs and torso);
- peculiar writing abnormalities (large, unequal letters, irregular underlining);
- a peculiar pattern of dysarthria (slurred speech, sometimes characterised by explosive variations in voice intensity despite a regular rhythm).
- inability to perform rapidly alternating movements, known as dysdiadochokinesia. This could involve rapidly switching from pronation to supination of the forearm. Movements become more irregular with increases of speed.^[8]
- inability to judge distances or ranges of movement. This is known as dysmetria and is often seen as undershooting, hypometria, or overshooting, hypermetria, the required distance or range to reach a target. This is sometimes seen when a patient is asked to reach out and touch someone's finger or touch his or her own nose.^[8]
- the rebound phenomenon, also known as the loss of the check reflex is also sometimes seen in patients with cerebellar ataxia. For example, when a patient is flexing his or her elbow isometrically against a resistance. When the resistance is suddenly removed without warning, the patient's arm may swing up and even strike themselves. With an intact check reflex, the patient will check and activate the opposing triceps to slow and stop the movement.^[8]

Sensory

The term sensory ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception, the loss of sensitivity to the positions of joint and body parts. This is generally caused by dysfunction of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, because they carry proprioceptive information up to the brain. In some cases, the cause of sensory ataxia may instead be dysfunction of the various parts of the brain which receive positional information, including the cerebellum, thalamus, and parietal lobes.

Sensory ataxia presents itself with an unsteady "stomping" gait with heavy heel strikes, as well as a postural instability that is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments.

Physicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having the patient stand with his/her feet together and eyes shut. In affected patients, this will cause the instability to worsen markedly, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall. This is called a positive Romberg's test. Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when the patient is standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician, if the eyes are closed, the patient's finger will tend to "fall down" and then be restored to the horizontal extended position by sudden muscular contractions (the "ataxic hand").

Vestibular

The term vestibular ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system, which in acute and unilateral cases is associated with prominent vertigo, nausea and vomiting. In slow-onset, chronic bilateral cases of vestibular dysfunction, these characteristic manifestations may be absent, and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation.

Causes

The three types of ataxia have overlapping causes, and therefore can either coexist or occur in isolation.

Focal lesions

Any type of focal lesion of the central nervous system (such as stroke, brain tumour, multiple sclerosis) will cause the type of ataxia corresponding to the site of the lesion: cerebellar if in the cerebellum, sensory if in the dorsal spinal cord (and rarely in the thalamus or parietal lobe), vestibular if in the vestibular system (including the vestibular areas of the cerebral cortex).

Exogenous substances

Exogenous substances that cause ataxia mainly do so because they have a depressant effect on central nervous system function. The most common example is ethanol, which is capable of causing reversible cerebellar and vestibular ataxia. Other examples include various prescription drugs (e.g. most antiepileptic drugs have cerebellar ataxia as a possible adverse effect), Lithium level over 1.5mEq/L, cannabis ingestion^[9] and various other recreational drugs (e.g. ketamine, PCP or dextromethorphan, all of which are NMDA receptor antagonists that produce a dissociative state at high doses). A further class of pharmaceuticals which can cause short term ataxia, especially in high doses are the benzodiazepines.^[10]^[11] Exposure to high levels of methylmercury, through consumption of fish with high mercury concentrations, is also a known cause of ataxia and other neurological disorders.^[12]

Radiation poisoning

Ataxia can be induced as a result of severe acute radiation poisoning with an absorbed dose of more than 30 Grays.

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency may cause, among several neurological abnormalities, overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia.

Hypothyroidism

Symptoms of neurological dysfunction may be the presenting feature in some patients with hypothyroidism. These include reversible cerebellar ataxia, dementia, peripheral neuropathy, psychosis and coma. Most of the neurological complications improve completely after thyroid hormone replacement therapy.^[13]^[14]

Causes of isolated sensory ataxia

Peripheral neuropathies may cause generalised or localised sensory ataxia (e.g. a limb only) depending on the extent of the neuropathic involvement. Spinal disorders of various types may cause sensory ataxia from the lesioned level below, when they involve the dorsal columns^[15]^[16]^[17]

Non-hereditary cerebellar degeneration

Non-hereditary causes of cerebellar degeneration include chronic ethanol abuse, head injury, paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, high altitude cerebral oedema, coeliac disease, normal pressure hydrocephalus and cerebellitis.

Hereditary ataxias

Ataxia may depend on hereditary disorders consisting of degeneration of the cerebellum and/or of the spine; most cases feature both to some extent, and therefore present with overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia, even though one is often more evident than the other. Hereditary disorders causing ataxia include autosomal dominant ones such as spinocerebellar ataxia, episodic ataxia, and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy, as well as autosomal recessive disorders such as Friedreich's ataxia (sensory and cerebellar, with the former predominating) and Niemann Pick disease, ataxia-telangiectasia (sensory and cerebellar, with the latter predominating), and abetalipoproteinaemia. An example of X-linked ataxic condition is the rare fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome.

Arnold-Chiari malformation

Arnold-Chiari malformation is a malformation of the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum, sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid outflow.

Wilson's disease

Wilson's disease is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder whereby an alteration of the ATP7B gene results in an inability to properly excrete copper from the body.^[18] Copper accumulates in the nervous system and liver and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological and organ impairments.^[19]

Gluten ataxia

Gluten ataxia may be a form of gluten sensitivity, a wide spectrum of disorders marked by an abnormal immunological response to gluten. With gluten ataxia, damage takes place in the cerebellum, the balance center of the brain that controls coordination and complex movements like walking, speaking and swallowing.^[20] Gluten ataxia is the single most common cause of sporadic idiopathic ataxia.^[21]

Gluten ataxia is an immune-mediated disease triggered by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. It should be considered in the differential diagnosis of all patients with idiopathic sporadic ataxia. Early diagnosis and treatment with a gluten free diet can improve ataxia and prevent its progression. Readily available and sensitive markers of gluten ataxia include anti-gliadin antibodies. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) deposits against transglutaminase 2 (TG2) in the small bowel and at extraintestinal sites are proving to be additionally reliable and perhaps more specific markers of the whole spectrum of gluten sensitivity. They may also hold the key to its pathogenesis.^[22]

Gluten ataxia is defined as sporadic cerebellar ataxia associated with the presence circulating antigliadin antibodies and in the absence of an alternative etiology for ataxia.^[23]

Sodium-potassium pump

Misfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some ataxias. The Na+
-K+
pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons.^[24] This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, "housekeeping" molecule for ionic gradients; but could be a computational element in the cerebellum and the brain. Indeed, an ouabain block of Na+
-K+
pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia.^[25] Ataxia is observed for lower ouabain concentrations, dystonia is observed at higher ouabain concentrations.

Treatment

The treatment of ataxia and its effectiveness depend on the underlying cause. Treatment may limit or reduce the effects of ataxia, but it is unlikely to eliminate them entirely. Recovery tends to be better in individuals with a single focal injury (such as stroke or a benign tumour), compared to those who have a neurological degenerative condition.^[26] A review of the management of degenerative ataxia was published in 2009.^[27]

The movement disorders associated with ataxia can be managed by pharmacological treatments and through physical therapy and occupational therapy to reduce disability.^[28] Some drug treatments that have been used to control ataxia include: 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), idebenone, amantadine, physostigmine, L-carnitine or derivatives, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, vigabatrin, phosphatidylcholine, acetazolamide, 4-aminopyridine, buspirone, and a combination of coenzyme Q10 and vitamin E.^[27]

Physical therapy requires a focus on adapting activity and facilitating motor learning for retraining specific functional motor patterns.^[29] A recent systematic review suggested that physical therapy is effective, but there is only moderate evidence to support this conclusion.^[30] The most commonly used physical therapy interventions for cerebellar ataxia are vestibular habituation, Frenkel Exercises, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), and balance training; however, therapy is often highly individualized and gait and coordination training are large components of therapy.

Current research suggests that, if a person is able to walk with or without a mobility aid, physical therapy should include an exercise program addressing five components: static balance, dynamic balance, trunk-limb coordination, stairs, and contracture prevention. Once the physical therapist determines that the individual is able to safely perform parts of the program independently, it is important that the individual be prescribed and regularly engage in a supplementary home exercise program that incorporates these components to further improve long term outcomes. These outcomes include balance tasks, gait, and individual activities of daily living. While the improvements are attributed primarily to changes in the brain and not just the hip and/or ankle joints, it is still unknown whether the improvements are due to adaptations in the cerebellum or compensation by other areas of the brain.^[29]

Decomposition, simplification, or slowing of multijoint movement may also be an effective strategy that therapists may use to improve function in patients with ataxia.^[31] Training likely needs to be intense and focused—as indicated by one study performed with stroke patients experiencing limb ataxia who underwent intensive upper limb retraining.^[32] Their therapy consisted of constraint-induced movement therapy which resulted in improvements of their arm function.^[32] Treatment should likely include strategies to manage difficulties with everyday activities such as walking. Gait aids (such as a cane or walker) can be provided to decrease the risk of falls associated with impairment of balance or poor coordination. Severe ataxia may eventually lead to the need for a wheelchair. To obtain better results, possible coexisting motor deficits need to be addressed in addition to those induced by ataxia. For example, muscle weakness and decreased endurance could lead to increasing fatigue and poorer movement patterns.

There are several assessment tools available to therapists and health care professionals working with patients with ataxia. The International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale (ICARS) is one of the most widely used and has been proven to have very high reliability and validity.^[33] Other tools that assess motor function, balance and coordination are also highly valuable to help the therapist track the progress of their patient, as well as to quantify the patient's functionality. These tests include, but are not limited to:

The Berg Balance Scale
Tandem Walking (to test for Tandem gaitability)
Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia^[34]
tapping tests – The person must quickly and repeatedly tap their arm or leg while the therapist monitors the amount of dysdiadochokinesia.^[35]
finger-nose testing^[35] – This test has several variations including finger-to-therapist's finger, finger-to-finger, and alternate nose-to-finger.^[36]

Other uses

The term "ataxia" is sometimes used in a broader sense to indicate lack of coordination in some physiological process. Examples include optic ataxia (lack of coordination between visual inputs and hand movements, resulting in inability to reach and grab objects) and ataxic respiration (lack of coordination in respiratory movements, usually due to dysfunction of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata). Optic ataxia may be caused by lesions to the posterior parietal cortex, which is responsible for combining and expressing positional information and relating it to movement. Outputs of the posterior parietal cortex include the spinal cord, brain stem motor pathways, pre-motor and pre-frontal cortex, basal ganglia and the cerebellum. Some neurons in the posterior parietal cortex are modulated by intention. Optic ataxia is usually part of Balint's syndrome, but can be seen in isolation with injuries to the superior parietal lobule, as it represents a disconnection between visual-association cortex and the frontal premotor and motor cortex.^[37]

References

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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Schmahmann JD (2004). "Disorders of the cerebellum: ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome". J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 16 (3): 367–78. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.16.3.367. PMID 15377747.
^ Fredericks CM (1996). "Disorders of the Cerebellum and Its Connections". In Saladin LK, Fredericks CM. Pathophysiology of the motor systems: principles and clinical presentations. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. ISBN 0-8036-0093-3.
^ Bastian AJ, Zackowski KM, Thach WT (May 2000). "Cerebellar ataxia: torque deficiency or torque mismatch between joints?". J. Neurophysiol. 83 (5): 3019–30. PMID 10805697.
^ ^a ^b Blumenfeld H (2002). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer. pp. 670–671. ISBN 0-87893-060-4.
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^ van de Warrenburg BP, Steijns JA, Munneke M, Kremer BP, Bloem BR (April 2005). "Falls in degenerative cerebellar ataxias". Mov. Disord. 20 (4): 497–500. doi:10.1002/mds.20375. PMID 15645525.
^ ^a ^b ^c Schmitz TJ, O'Sullivan SB (2007). "Examination of Coordination". Physical rehabilitation. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. pp. 193–225. ISBN 0-8036-1247-8.
^ "Inadvertent Ingestion of Marijuana --- Los Angeles, California, 2009". Retrieved 3 September 2009.
^ Browne TR (May 1976). "Clonazepam. A review of a new anticonvulsant drug". Arch. Neurol. 33 (5): 326–32. doi:10.1001/archneur.1976.00500050012003. PMID 817697.
^ Gaudreault P, Guay J, Thivierge RL, Verdy I (1991). "Benzodiazepine poisoning. Clinical and pharmacological considerations and treatment". Drug Saf 6 (4): 247–65. doi:10.2165/00002018-199106040-00003. PMID 1888441.
^ Díez S (2009). "Human health effects of methylmercury exposure". Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 198: 111–32. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09647-6_3. ISBN 978-0-387-09646-9. PMID 19253038.
^ Victor M, Ropper AH, Adams RD, Samuels M (2009). Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology (Ninth ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 78–88. ISBN 0-07-149992-X.
^ Pavan MR, Deepak M, Basavaprabhu A, Gupta A (2012). "Doctor i am swaying – An interesting case of ataxia". Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
^ Spinazzi M, Angelini C, Patrini C (May 2010). "Subacute sensory ataxia and optic neuropathy with thiamine deficiency". Nature Reviews Neurology 6 (5): 288–93. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2010.16. PMID 20308997.
^ Sghirlanzoni A, Pareyson D, Lauria G (June 2005). "Sensory neuron diseases". Lancet Neurol 4 (6): 349–61. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70096-X. PMID 15907739.
^ Moeller JJ, Macaulay RJ, Valdmanis PN, Weston LE, Rouleau GA, Dupré N (September 2008). "Autosomal dominant sensory ataxia: a neuroaxonal dystrophy". Acta Neuropathol. 116 (3): 331–6. doi:10.1007/s00401-008-0362-6. PMID 18347805.
^ Walshe JM. Clarke CE, Nicholl DJ, ed. "Wilson’s Disease". Birmingham Movement Disorders Coursebook.
^ Haldeman-Englert, C. "Wilson's disease - PubMed Health". PubMed Health.
^ Boyd C (Feb–Mar 2011). "Gluten Attack: Ataxia A Controversial Call". Living Without.
^ Hadjivassiliou M, Grünewald R, Sharrack B, Sanders D, Lobo A, Williamson C, Woodroofe N, Wood N, Davies-Jones A (March 2003). "Gluten ataxia in perspective: epidemiology, genetic susceptibility and clinical characteristics". Brain 126 (Pt 3): 685–91. doi:10.1093/brain/awg050. PMID 12566288.
^ Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DS, Woodroofe N, Williamson C, Grünewald RA (2008). "Gluten ataxia". Cerebellum 7 (3): 494–8. doi:10.1007/s12311-008-0052-x. PMID 18787912.
^ Hadjivassiliou M, Mäki M, Sanders DS, Williamson CA, Grünewald RA, Woodroofe NM, Korponay-Szabó IR (February 2006). "Autoantibody targeting of brain and intestinal transglutaminase in gluten ataxia". Neurology 66 (3): 373–7. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000196480.55601.3a. PMID 16476935.
^ Forrest MD, Wall MJ, Press DA, Feng J (December 2012). "The Sodium-Potassium Pump Controls the Intrinsic Firing of the Cerebellar Purkinje Neuron". PLoS ONE 7 (12): e51169. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051169. PMC 3527461. PMID 23284664.
^ Calderon DP, Fremont R, Kraenzlin F, Khodakhah K (March 2011). "The neural substrates of rapid-onset Dystonia-Parkinsonism". Nature Neuroscience 14 (3): 357–65. doi:10.1038/nn.2753. PMC 3430603. PMID 21297628.
^ Morton SM, Bastian AJ (December 2009). "Can rehabilitation help ataxia?". Neurology 73 (22): 1818–9. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c33b21. PMID 19864635.
^ ^a ^b Trujillo-Martín MM, Serrano-Aguilar P, Monton-Alvarez F, Carrillo-Fumero R (June 2009). "Effectiveness and safety of treatments for degenerative ataxias: a systematic review". Mov. Disord. 24 (8): 1111–24. doi:10.1002/mds.22564. PMID 19412936.
^ Perlman SL (November 2006). "Ataxias". Clin. Geriatr. Med. 22 (4): 859–77, vii. doi:10.1016/j.cger.2006.06.011. PMID 17000340.
^ ^a ^b Ilg W, Synofzik M, Brötz D, Burkard S, Giese MA, Schöls L (December 2009). "Intensive coordinative training improves motor performance in degenerative cerebellar disease". Neurology 73 (22): 1823–30. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c33adf. PMID 19864636.
^ Martin CL, Tan D, Bragge P, Bialocerkowski A (January 2009). "Effectiveness of physiotherapy for adults with cerebellar dysfunction: a systematic review". Clinical Rehabilitation 23 (1): 15–26. doi:10.1177/0269215508097853. PMID 19114434.
^ Bastian AJ (June 1997). "Mechanisms of ataxia". Physical Therapy 77 (6): 672–5. PMID 9184691.
^ ^a ^b Richards L, Senesac C, McGuirk T, Woodbury M, Howland D, Davis S, Patterson T (2008). "Response to intensive upper extremity therapy by individuals with ataxia from stroke". Top Stroke Rehabil 15 (3): 262–71. doi:10.1310/tsr1503-262. PMID 18647730.
^ Schmitz-Hübsch T, Tezenas du Montcel S, Baliko L, Boesch S, Bonato S, Fancellu R, Giunti P, Globas C, Kang JS, Kremer B, Mariotti C, Melegh B, Rakowicz M, Rola R, Romano S, Schöls L, Szymanski S, van de Warrenburg BP, Zdzienicka E, Dürr A, Klockgether T (May 2006). "Reliability and validity of the International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale: a study in 156 spinocerebellar ataxia patients". Mov. Disord. 21 (5): 699–704. doi:10.1002/mds.20781. PMID 16450347.
^ Schmitz-Hübsch T, du Montcel ST, Baliko L, Berciano J, Boesch S, Depondt C, Giunti P, Globas C, Infante J, Kang JS, Kremer B, Mariotti C, Melegh B, Pandolfo M, Rakowicz M, Ribai P, Rola R, Schöls L, Szymanski S, van de Warrenburg BP, Dürr A, Klockgether T, Fancellu R (June 2006). "Scale for the assessment and rating of ataxia: development of a new clinical scale". Neurology 66 (11): 1717–20. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000219042.60538.92. PMID 16769946.
^ ^a ^b Notermans NC, van Dijk GW, van der Graaf Y, van Gijn J, Wokke JH (January 1994). "Measuring ataxia: quantification based on the standard neurological examination". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 57 (1): 22–6. doi:10.1136/jnnp.57.1.22. PMC 485035. PMID 8301300.
^ "OPETA: Neurologic Examination". Online physical exam teaching assistant. The UF College of Medicine Harrell Center. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
^ Vallar G (July 2007). "Spatial neglect, Balint-Homes' and Gerstmann's syndrome, and other spatial disorders". CNS Spectr 12 (7): 527–36. PMID 17603404.

External links

Friedreich's Ataxia Research Alliance (FARA)
Ataxia Connect Social Network
Ataxia UK, including guidelines
Brasil, Rio Grande do Sul - Associação dos Amigos, Parentes e Portadores de Ataxias Dominantes
Canadian Association for Familial Ataxias - Claude St-Jean Foundation
International Ataxia Awareness Day
LivingWithAtaxia Forums & Community
Overview at National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
Rochester Ataxia Foundation, Rochester, NY
The latest news and research on Ataxia
US National Ataxia Foundation
University of Minnesota Ataxia Center
Video demonstration of ataxic gait
Gluten Ataxia
Range of Neurologic Disorders in Patients With Celiac Disease
The Cerebellum
Cerebellum and Ataxias

UpToDate Contents

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1. 遺伝性運動失調の概要 overview of the hereditary ataxias
2. 成人における小脳性運動失調の概要 overview of cerebellar ataxia in adults
3. フリードライヒ失調症 friedreich ataxia
4. 毛細血管拡張性運動失調症 ataxia telangiectasia
5. 脊髄小脳変性症 the spinocerebellar ataxias

English Journal

A Novel GBA2 Gene Missense Mutation in Spastic Ataxia.

Votsi C, Zamba-Papanicolaou E, Middleton LT, Pantzaris M, Christodoulou K.SourceThe Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Annals of human genetics.Ann Hum Genet.2013 Nov 20. doi: 10.1111/ahg.12045. [Epub ahead of print]
Autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxias (ARCA) encompass a heterogeneous group of rare diseases that affect the cerebellum, the spinocerebellar tract and/or the sensory tracts of the spinal cord. We investigated a consanguineous Cypriot family with spastic ataxia, aiming towards identification of the
PMID 24252062

A new CSF1R mutation presenting with an extensive white matter lesion mimicking primary progressive multiple sclerosis.

Inui T, Kawarai T, Fujita K, Kawamura K, Mitsui T, Orlacchio A, Kamada M, Abe T, Izumi Y, Kaji R.SourceDepartment of Neurology, Tokushima Hospital, National Hospital Organization, Tokushima, Japan. Electronic address: inuito@tokusima.hosp.go.jp.
Journal of the neurological sciences.J Neurol Sci.2013 Nov 15;334(1-2):192-5. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2013.08.020. Epub 2013 Aug 29.
HDLS (Hereditary Diffuse Leukodystrophy with Spheroids) is a hereditary leukodystrophy whose main clinical manifestations include parkinsonism, spasticity, and ataxia. Genetic defects in the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) gene have been reported in many HDLS cases. The present report d
PMID 24034409

Japanese Journal

Modeling Inherited Cardiac Disorders:– A Cell Is Worth a Thousand Genes –

Sallam Karim,Kodo Kazuki,Wu Joseph C.
Circulation Journal, 2014
… These cells provide a unique platform to study cardiac diseases in vitro, especially hereditary cardiac conditions. … In addition, iPSC-CMs have shown some features of the respective phenotypes for arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy (ARVD/C), LEOPARD syndrome, Pompe's disease, and Friedriech's ataxia. …
NAID 130003391060

Identification of a Novel Homozygous SPG7 Mutation in a Japanese Patient with Spastic Ataxia: Making an Efficient Diagnosis Using Exome Sequencing for Autosomal Recessive Cerebellar Ataxia and Spastic Paraplegia

Doi Hiroshi,Ohba Chihiro,Tsurusaki Yoshinori,Miyatake Satoko,Miyake Noriko,Saitsu Hirotomo,Kawamoto Yuko,Yoshida Tamaki,Koyano Shigeru,Suzuki Yume,Kuroiwa Yoshiyuki,Tanaka Fumiaki,Matsumoto Naomichi
Internal Medicine 52(14), 1629-1633, 2013
… Autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxias and autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegias are clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorders with diverse neurological and non-neurological features. … We herein describe a Japanese patient with a slowly progressive form of ataxia and spastic paraplegia. …
NAID 130003365707

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「spinocerebellar disease」「inherited spinocerebellar degeneration」「遺伝性運動失調」「遺伝性運動失調症」
拡張検索	「hereditary ataxia with muscular atrophy」
関連記事	「hereditary」