discoverer

　

WordNet

1. someone who is the first of two or more people to discover something
2. see for the first time; make a discovery; "Who discovered the North Pole?"
3. make a discovery, make a new finding; "Roentgen discovered X-rays"; "Physicists believe they found a new elementary particle" (同)find
4. make a discovery; "She found that he had lied to her"; "The story is false, so far as I can discover" (同)find

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 発見者
2. 〈今まで知らなかった物・場所〉‘を'『発見する』,見付ける / 〈今まで知らなかった事〉‘を'発見する,悟る

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/04/13 14:43:40」(JST)

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"KH-3" and "KH3" redirect here. For the upcoming third main game in the Kingdom Hearts series, see Kingdom Hearts III.

"Discoverer" redirects here. For the database software, see Oracle Discoverer. For the R.E.M. song, see Discoverer (song).

Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule (typical for the Corona series)

The Corona program was a series of American strategic reconnaissance satellites produced and operated by the Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Science & Technology with substantial assistance from the U.S. Air Force. The Corona satellites were used for photographic surveillance of the Soviet Union (USSR), the People's Republic of China, and other areas beginning in June 1959 and ending in May 1972. The name of this program is sometimes seen as "CORONA", but its actual name "Corona" was a codeword, not an acronym.

KH-4B Corona satellite

History and costs

Lockheed's covert "advanced projects" facility at Hiller Aircraft in Menlo Park, California.

Corona started under the name "Discoverer" as part of the WS-117L satellite reconnaissance and protection program of the US Air Force in 1956. The WS-117L was based on recommendations and designs from the RAND Corporation. The United States Air Force credits the Onizuka Air Force Station as being the "birthplace of the Corona program." In May 1958, the Department of Defense directed the transfer of the WS-117L program to Advanced Research Projects Agency. In FY1958, WS-117L was funded by the AF at a level of US$108.2 million (inflation adjusted US$0.89 billion in 2016). For Discoverer, the Air Force and ARPA spent a combined sum of US$132.3 million in FY1959 (inflation adjusted US$1.07 billion in 2016) and US$101.2 million in FY1960 (inflation adjusted US$0.81 billion in 2016). According to John N. McMahon, the total cost of the CORONA program amounted to $US 850 million.

The Corona project was pushed forward rapidly following the shooting down of a U-2 spy plane over the Soviet Union in May 1960.

Technology

The Corona satellites used special 70 millimeter film with a 24-inch (610 mm) focal length camera. Manufactured by Eastman Kodak, the film was initially 0.0003 inches (7.6 µm) thick, with a resolution of 170 lines per 0.04 inches (1.0 mm) of film. The contrast was 2-to-1. (By comparison, the best aerial photography film produced in World War II could produce just 50 lines per mm (1250 per inch) of film.) The acetate-based film was later replaced with a polyester-based film stock that was more durable in earth orbit. The amount of film carried by the satellites varied over time. Initially, each satellite carried 8,000 feet (2,400 m) of film for each camera, for a total of 16,000 feet (4,900 m) of film. But a reduction in the thickness of the film stock allowed more film to be carried. In the fifth generation, the amount of film carried was doubled to 16,000 feet (4,900 m) of film for each camera for a total of 32,000 feet (9,800 m) of film. This was accomplished by a reduction in film thickness and with additional film capsules. Most of the film shot was black and white. Infrared film was used on mission 1104, and color film on missions 1105 and 1008. Color film proved to have lower resolution, however, and was never used again.

The cameras were manufactured by the Itek Corporation. A 12-inch (30 cm), f/5 triplet lens was designed for the cameras. Each lens was 7 inches (18 cm) in diameter. They were quite similar to the Tessar lenses developed in Germany by Zeiss. The cameras themselves were initially 5 feet (1.5 m) long, but later extended to 9 feet (2.7 m) in length. Beginning with the KH-4 satellites, these lenses were replaced with Petzval f/3.5 lens. The lenses were panoramic, and moved through a 70° arc perpendicular to the direction of the orbit. A panoramic lens was chosen because it could obtain a wider image. Although the best resolution was only obtained in the center of the image, this could be overcome by having the camera sweep automatically ("reciprocate") back and forth across 70° of arc. The lens on the camera was constantly rotating, to counteract the blurring effect of the satellite moving over the planet.

Diagram of "J-1" type stereo/panoramic constantly rotating Corona reconnaissance satellite camera system used on KH-4A missions from 1963 to 1969.

The first Corona satellites had a single camera, but a two-camera system was quickly implemented. The front camera was tilted 15° forward, and the rear camera tilted 15° aft, so that a stereoscopic image could be obtained. Later in the program, the satellite employed three cameras. The third camera was employed to take "index" photographs of the objects being stereographically filmed. The J-3 camera system, first deployed in 1967, placed the camera in a drum. This "rotator camera" (or drum) moved back and forth, eliminating the need to move the camera itself on a reciprocating mechanism. The drum permitted the use of up to two filters and as many as four different exposure slits, greatly improving the variability of images that Corona could take. The first cameras could resolve images on the ground down to 40 feet (12 m) in diameter. Improvements in the imaging system were rapid, and the KH-3 missions could see objects 10 feet (3.0 m) in diameter. Later missions would be able to resolve objects just 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. A single mission was completed with a 1 foot (0.30 m) resolution but the limited field of view was determined to be detrimental to the mission. 3 feet (0.91 m) resolution was found to be the optimum resolution for quality of image and field of view.

The initial Corona missions suffered from mysterious border fogging and bright streaks which appeared irregularly on the returned film. Eventually, a team of scientists and engineers from the project and from academia (among them Luis Alvarez, Sidney Beldner, Malvin Ruderman, Arthur Glines, and Sidney Drell) determined that electrostatic discharges (called corona discharges) caused by some of the components of the cameras were exposing the film. Corrective measures included better grounding of the components, improved film rollers that did not generate static electricity, improved temperature controls, and a cleaner internal environment. Although improvements were made to reduce the corona, the final solution was to load the film canisters with a full load of film and then feed the unexposed film through the camera onto the take-up reel with no exposure. This unexposed film was then processed and inspected for corona. If none was found or the corona observed was within acceptable levels, the canisters were certified for use and loaded with fresh film for a launch mission.

The first satellites in the program orbited at altitudes 100 miles (160 km) above the surface of the Earth, although later missions orbited even lower at 75 miles (121 km)). Originally, Corona satellites were designed to spin along their main axis so that the satellite would remain stable. Cameras would take photographs only when pointed at the Earth. The Itek camera company, however, proposed to stabilize the satellite along all three axes—keeping the cameras permanently pointed at the earth. Beginning with the KH-3 version of the satellite, a horizon camera took images of several key stars. A sensor used the satellite's side thruster rockets to align the rocket with these "index stars," so that it was correctly aligned with the Earth and the cameras pointed in the right direction. Beginning in 1967, two horizon cameras were used. This system was known as the Dual Improved Stellar Index Camera (DISIC).

Recovery

Corona film recovery maneuver

Corona film bucket payload

Film was retrieved from orbit via a reentry capsule (nicknamed "film bucket"), designed by General Electric, which separated from the satellite and fell to earth. After the fierce heat of reentry was over, the heat shield surrounding the vehicle was jettisoned at 60,000 feet (18 km) and parachutes deployed. The capsule was intended to be caught in mid-air by a passing airplane towing an airborne claw which would then winch it aboard, or it could land at sea. A salt plug in the base would dissolve after two days, allowing the capsule to sink if it was not picked up by the United States Navy. After Reuters reported on a reentry vehicle's accidental landing and discovery by Venezuelan farmers in mid-1964, capsules were no longer labeled "Secret" but offered a reward in eight languages for their return to the United States. Beginning with flight number 69, a two-capsule system was employed. This also allowed the satellite to go into passive (or "zombie") mode, shutting down for as many as 21 days before taking images again. Beginning in 1963, another improvement was "Lifeboat", a battery-powered system that allowed for ejection and recovery of the capsule in case power failed. The film was processed at Eastman Kodak's Hawkeye facility in Rochester, New York.

The Corona film bucket was later adapted for the KH-7 GAMBIT satellite, which took higher resolution photos.

Launch

Coronas were launched by a Thor-Agena rocket, which used a Thor first stage and an Agena booster (which served as the second stage of the rocket lifting the Corona into orbit).

The first attempted launch in the program took place on January 21, 1959 at Vandenberg AFB's LC-75. As the Agena was being loaded with fuel (the Thor was still empty at this point), someone decided to conduct a test of the launch computer sequencer. The result was that the Agena accidentally received a signal that staging had taken place and to begin booster separation. As everyone in the blockhouse watched in dismay, the ullage rockets on the outside of the Agena began firing and the internal fuel pumps began spinning up for engine start. A quick-thinking member of the blockhouse crew then pressed a button on his control console to send a shutdown signal to the booster. Although potential disaster had been averted, the Agena now had nothing except gravity holding it onto the Thor and the risk of the stage falling to the ground, rupturing, and spilling its corrosive nitric acid/UDMH propellant load existed. In addition, the heat from the ullage rockets could potentially ignite the propellants in the stage. Pad crews had to wait several hours for the batteries in the Agena to run down before they could begin dismantling the launch vehicle. The Thor sustained minor damage and was sent back to Douglas for refurbishment, but the Agena had had nitric acid spilled down its exterior and was deemed unsafe to fly. In any case, it was one of the first Agena stages produced and lacked some technical refinements made to newer models. It ended up being used at Lockheed for training purposes.

The incident presaged the endless frustration that followed in the Corona program with one failed launch after another. After the launch vehicle was repaired, Discoverer 1 lifted on February 28, 1959. The Thor performed properly and staging followed by Agena ignition took place on schedule. However, the Agena soon passed out of radar range and ground controllers lost contact with it (at this early stage of the program, there was no reliable way to track a launch vehicle deep in the Southern Hemisphere). While Discoverer 1 was initially assumed to have reached orbit, no signals were detected. It is generally believed that the Agena or satellite or both suffered an unknown malfunction after passing out of tracking range and that Discoverer 1 most likely impacted in the South Pacific or Antarctica.

Shortly after the launch of Discoverer 1, an East German radio station attacked the US for "launching a military satellite without giving prior warning to any nation whose territory it might pass over", all in spite of the fact that it was merely a test payload with no reconnaissance capability and had not even made it into orbit. Although conventional wisdom in the West at this time tended to be that the entire communist world merely executed orders from Moscow, the Soviets did not make any comments on Discoverer 1 themselves and it would have been difficult for them to credibly do so given that there had been ten previous Soviet space launches, most of which passed over US territory.

Discoverer 2 (April 14) carried a recovery capsule for the first time and was also the first satellite to be placed into polar orbit. The main bus performed well, but the capsule recovery failed. It apparently came down near Spitsbergen Island off Norway, but was never found. Rumors persist that the Soviets recovered the capsule themselves, but there is no evidence of this and in any case, there would have been little information they could have gained from the small test payload. At this early phase, program planners were not even sure if the Thor/Agena had enough lift capacity to orbit a camera package. It is more likely that Discoverer 2's capsule sank into the ocean.

Discoverer 3 was scheduled for launch on June 1. This satellite carried a biological payload with four black mice, the only one flown in the Corona program. The initial attempt miscarried when the mice poisoned themselves gnawing on Krylon paint inside the capsule, but a replacement batch were launched two days later. They never made it to orbit however; the Agena suffered a guidance malfunction and sent the mice and spacecraft into the Pacific Ocean.

Discoverer 4 (June 25) failed to orbit when the Agena engine underperformed and the capsule could not attain orbital velocity.

Discoverer 5 (August 13) accidentally sent its capsule into a higher orbit where it remained until November 1961.

Discoverer 6 (August 19) suffered a retrorocket failure that prevented deorbit of the capsule.

Discoverer 7 (November 7) experienced an attitude control malfunction in orbit, once again preventing capsule recovery.

Discoverer 8 (November 20) was put into an incorrect orbit by the launch vehicle, again preventing capsule recovery.

Discoverer 9 (February 4, 1960) ended up in the Pacific Ocean when the Thor cut off too early.

Discoverer 10 (February 19) failed when the Thor suffered a control malfunction and was destroyed by Range Safety just under a minute into launch.

Discoverer 11 (April 15) suffered another attitude control malfunction in orbit.

Discoverer 12 (June 29) failed to orbit due to an attitude control problem with the Agena.

Discoverer 13 (August 10) managed a successful capsule recovery for the first time. This was also the first recovery of a manmade object from space, beating out the Soviet Korabl Sputnik 2 by nine days.

Discoverer 14 (August 18) carried a camera package for the first time. The cameras operated properly and the capsule was recovered from the Pacific Ocean 1-1/2 days after launch.

Discoverer 15 (September 13) managed to successfully deorbit its capsule, but it sank into the Pacific Ocean and was not recovered.

In 1963, the KH-4 system was introduced with dual cameras and the program now made completely secret. The Discoverer label was dropped and all launches became classified. Because of the increased satellite mass, the basic Thor-Agena vehicle was enhanced by the addition of three Castor solid-fueled strap-on motors. On February 28, 1963, the first Thrust Augmented Thor lifted from VABF's LC-75 carrying the first KH-4 satellite. Not surprisingly, the launch of a new, unproven booster went awry as two of the strap-on motors failed to separate after burnout. Their dead weight dragged the Thor off its flight path, leading to a Range Safety destruct. Although some failures continued to occur during the next few years, the reliability rate of the program significantly improved with KH-4. Maneuvering rockets were also added to the satellite beginning in 1963. These were different from the attitude stabilizing thrusters which had been incorporated from the beginning of the program. Corona orbited in very low orbits to enhance resolution of its camera system. But at perigee (the lowest point in the orbit), Corona endured drag from the Earth's atmosphere. In time, this could cause its orbit to decay and force the satellite to re-enter the atmosphere prematurely. The new maneuvering rockets were designed to boost Corona into a higher orbit, and lengthen the mission time even if low perigees were used. For use during unexpected crises, the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) kept a Corona in "R-7" status, meaning ready for launch in seven days. By the summer of 1965, NRO was able to maintain Corona for launch within one day.

The procurement and maintenance of the Corona satellites was managed by the Central Intelligence Agency, which used cover arrangements lasting from April 1958 to 1969 to get access to the Palo Alto plant of the Hiller Helicopter Corporation for the production. At this facility, the rocket's second stage Agena, the cameras, film cassettes, and re-entry capsule were assembled and tested before shipment to Vandenberg Air Force Base. In 1969, assembly duties were relocated to the Lockheed facilities in Sunnyvale, California. (The NRO was worried that, as Corona was phased out, skilled technicians worried about their jobs would quit the program—leaving Corona without staff. The move to Sunnyvale ensured that enough skilled staff would be available.)

The decisions regarding what to photograph were made by the Corona Target Program. Corona satellites were placed into near-polar orbits. This software, run by an on-board computer, was programmed to operate the cameras based on the intelligence targets to be imaged, the weather, the satellite's operational status, and what images the cameras had already captured. Ground control for Corona satellites was initially conducted from Stanford Industrial Park, an industrial park on Page Mill Road in Palo Alto, California. It was later moved to Sunnyvale Air Force Base near Sunnyvale, California.

Corona launches with system types

KH-1 Corona main features

KH-2 Corona main features

KH-3 Corona main features

KH-4 Corona M (Agena-B service module) main features

KH-4 Corona M (Agena-D service module) main features

KH-4A Corona J1 main features

KH-4B Corona J3 main features

The Corona satellites were designated KH-1, KH-2, KH-3, KH-4, KH-4A and KH-4B. KH stood for "Key Hole" or "Keyhole" (Code number 1010), with the name being an analogy to the act of spying into a person's room by peering through their door's keyhole. The incrementing number indicated changes in the surveillance instrumentation, such as the change from single-panoramic to double-panoramic cameras. The "KH" naming system was first used in 1962 with KH-4 and the earlier numbers were retroactively applied. There were 144 Corona satellites launched, of which 102 returned usable photographs.

Corona image of The Pentagon, 25 Sep 1967

Below is a list of Corona launches, as compiled by the United States Geological Survey. This table lists government's designation of each type of satellite (C, C-prime, J-1, etc.), the resolution of the camera, and a description of the camera system.

Time period	No.	Nickname	Resolution	Notes	Number
Jun 1959 – Sep 1960	KH-1	"Corona", C	7.5 m	First series of American imaging spy satellites. Each satellite carried a single panoramic camera and a single return vehicle.	10 systems; 1 recovery.
Oct 1960 – Oct 1961	KH-2	Corona′, C′ (or "C-prime")*	7.5 m	Single panoramic camera and a single return vehicle.	7 systems; 4 recoveries.
Aug 1961 – Jan 1962	KH-3	Corona‴, C‴ (or "C-triple-prime")*	7.5 m	Single panoramic camera and a single return vehicle.	9 systems; 5 recoveries.
Feb 1962 – Dec 1963	KH-4	Corona-M, Mural	7.5 m	Film return. Two panoramic cameras.	26 systems; 20 recoveries.
Aug 1963 – Oct 1969	KH-4A	Corona J-1	2.75 m	Film return with two reentry vehicles and two panoramic cameras. Large volume of imagery.	52 systems; 94 recoveries.
Sep 1967 – May 1972	KH-4B	Corona J-3	1.8 m	Film return with two reentry vehicles and two panoramic rotator cameras.	17 systems; 32 recoveries.
Feb 1961 – Aug 1964	KH-5	Argon	140 m	Low-resolution mapping missions; single frame camera.	12 systems; 5 recoveries.
Mar 1963 – July 1963	KH-6	Lanyard	1.8 m	Experimental camera in a short-lived program.	3 systems; 2 recoveries.

^*(The stray "quote marks" are the original designations of the first three generations of cameras.)

Discoverer

The first dozen or more Corona satellites and their launches were cloaked with disinformation as being part of a space technology development program called the Discoverer program. The first test launches for the Corona/Discoverer were carried out early in 1959. The capsule of Discoverer 2 might have been recovered by the Soviets, after landing on Spitsbergen Island. The first Corona launch containing a camera was carried out in June 1959 with the cover name Discoverer 4. This was a 750 kilogram satellite launched by a Thor-Agena rocket.

The return capsule of the Discoverer 13 mission, which launched August 10, 1960, was successfully recovered the next day. This was the first time that any object had been recovered successfully from orbit. After the mission of Discoverer 14, launched on August 18, 1960, its film bucket was successfully retrieved two days later by a C-119 Flying Boxcar transport plane. This was the first successful return of photographic film from orbit. In comparison, Sputnik 5 was launched into orbit on August 19, 1960, one day after the launch of Discoverer 14. Sputnik 5 was a biosatellite that took into orbit the two Soviet space dogs, Belka and Strelka, and then safely returned them to the Earth .

At least two launches of Discoverers were used to test satellites for the Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS), an early missile-launch-detection program that used infrared cameras to detect the heat signature of rockets launching to orbit.

The last launch under the Discoverer cover name was Discoverer 38 on February 26, 1962. Its bucket was successfully recovered in midair during the 65th orbit (the 13th recovery of a bucket; the ninth one in midair). Following this last use of the Discoverer name, the remaining launches of Corona satellites were entirely top secret. The last Corona launch was on May 25, 1972. The project ended when Corona was replaced by the KH-9 Hexagon program. The best sequence of Corona missions was from 1966 to 1971, when there were 32 consecutive successful missions, including film recoveries.

An alternative program to the Corona program was named SAMOS. This program included several types of satellite which used a different photographic method. This involved capturing an image on photographic film, developing the film on board the satellite and then scanning the image electronically. The image was then transmitted via telemetry to ground stations. The Samos E-1 and E-2 satellite programs used this system, but they were not able to take very many pictures and then relay them to the ground stations each day. Two later versions of the Samos program, such as the E-5 and the E-6, used the bucket-return approach, but neither of these programs carried out any successful missions.

ELINT subsatellites

Nine of the KH-4A and KH-4B missions included ELINT subsatellites, which were launched into a higher orbit.

Declassification

The Corona program was officially classified top secret until 1992. Then, on February 22, 1995, the photos taken by the Corona satellites, and also by two contemporary programs (Argon and KH-6 Lanyard) were declassified under an Executive Order signed by President Bill Clinton. The further review by photo experts of the "obsolete broad-area film-return systems other than Corona" mandated by President Clinton's order led to the declassification in 2002 of the photos from the KH-7 and the KH-9 low-resolution cameras.

The declassified imagery has since been used by a team of scientists from the Australian National University to locate and explore ancient habitation sites, pottery factories, megalithic tombs, and Palaeolithic archaeological remains in northern Syria. Similarly, scientists at Harvard have used the imagery to identify prehistoric traveling routes in Mesopotamia.

The CORONA Digital Atlas of the Middle East Project hosts a large number of KH-4B imagery where users can view and download spatially corrected images.

Launches

Mission No.	Cover Name	Launch Date	NSSDC ID No.	Alt. Name	Camera	Notes
R&D	Discoverer	21 Jan 1959	1959-E01	1959-E01	none	Agena ullage/separation rockets ignited on the pad while the launch vehicle was being fueled prior to the intended flight.
R&D	Discoverer 1	28 Feb 1959	1959-002A	1959 BET	none	Agena telemetry failure at T+500 seconds
R&D	Discoverer 2	13 Apr 1959	1959-003A	1959 GAM	none	First three-axis stabilized satellite; capsule recovery failed
R&D	Discoverer 3	03 Jun 1959	DISCOV3	1959-F02	none	Agena guidance failure. Vehicle fell into the Pacific Ocean
9001	Discoverer 4	25 Jun 1959	DISC4	1959-U01	KH-1	Insufficient Agena engine thrust. Vehicle fell into the Pacific Ocean
9002	Discoverer 5	13 Aug 1959	1959-005A	1959 EPS 1	KH-1	Mission failed. Power supply failure. No recovery.
9003	Discoverer 6	19 Aug 1959	1959-006A	1959 ZET	KH-1	Mission failed. Retro rockets malfunctioned negating recovery.
9004	Discoverer 7	07 Nov 1959	1959-010A	1959 KAP	KH-1	Mission failed. Satellite tumbled in orbit.
9005	Discoverer 8	20 Nov 1959	1959-011A	1959 LAM	KH-1	Mission failed. Eccentric orbit negating recovery.
9006	Discoverer 9	04 Feb 1960	DiSC9	1960-F01	KH-1	Agena accidentally damaged during on-pad servicing. Premature cutoff and staging signal sent to Thor.
9007	Discoverer 10	19 Feb 1960	DISC10	1960-F02	KH-1	Control failure followed by RSO destruct T+52 seconds after launch
9008	Discoverer 11	15 Apr 1960	1960-004A	1960 DEL	KH-1	Attitude control system malfunctioned. No film capsule recovery.
R&D	Discoverer 12	29 Jun 1960	DISC12	1960-F08	none	Agena attitude control malfunction. No orbit.
R&D	Discoverer 13	10 Aug 1960	1960-008A	1960 THE	none	Tested capsule recovery system; first successful capture.
9009	Discoverer 14	18 Aug 1960	1960-010A	1960 KAP	KH-1	First successful recovery of IMINT from space. Cameras operated satisfactorily.
9010	Discoverer 15	13 Sep 1960	1960-012A	1960 MU	KH-1	Mission failed. Attained orbit successfully. Capsule sank prior to retrieval.
9011	Discoverer 16	26 Oct 1960	1960-F15	1960-F15	KH-2	Agena failed to separate from Atlas.
9012	Discoverer 17	12 Nov 1960	1960-015A	1960 OMI	KH-2	Mission failed. Obtained orbit successfully. Film separated before any camera operation leaving only 1.7 ft (0.52 m) of film in capsule.
9013	Discoverer 18	07 Dec 1960	1960-018A	1960 SIG	KH-2	First successful mission employing KH-2 camera system.
RM-1	Discoverer 19	20 Dec 1960	1960-019A	1960 TAU	none	Test of Midas missile-detection system
9014A	Discoverer 20	17 Feb 1961	1961-005A	1961 EPS 1	KH-5	See KH-5
RM-2	Discoverer 21	18 Feb 1961	1961-006A	1961 ZET	none	Test of restartable rocket engine
9015	Discoverer 22	30 Mar 1961	DISC22	1961-F02	KH-2	Agena control malfunction. No orbit.
9016A	Discoverer 23	08 Apr 1961	1961-011A	1961 LAM 1	KH-5	See KH-5
9018A	Discoverer 24	08 Jun 1961	DISC24	1961-F05	KH-5	See KH-5
9017	Discoverer 25	16 Jun 1961	1961-014A	1961 XI 1	KH-2	Capsule recovered from water on orbit 32. Streaks throughout film.
9019	Discoverer 26	07 Jul 1961	1961-016A	1961 PI	KH-2	Main camera malfunctioned on pass 22.
9020A	Discoverer 27	21 Jul 1961	DISC27	1961-F07	KH-5	See KH-5
9021	Discoverer 28	04 Aug 1961	DISC28	1961-F08	KH-2	Thor guidance failure. RSO destruct at T+60 seconds.
9022	Discoverer 30	12 Sep 1961	1961-024A	1961 OME 1	KH-3	Best mission to date. Same out-of-focus condition as in 9023.
9023	Discoverer 29	30 Aug 1961	1961-023A	1961 PSI	KH-3	First use of KH-3 camera system. All frames out of focus.
9024	Discoverer 31	17 Sep 1961	1961-026A	1961 A BET	KH-3	Mission failed. Power failure and loss of control gas on orbit 33. Capsule was not recovered.
9025	Discoverer 32	13 Oct 1961	1961-027A	1961 A GAM 1	KH-3	Capsule recovered on orbit 18. 96% of film out of focus.
9026	Discoverer 33	23 Oct 1961	DISC33	1961-F10	KH-3	Mission failed. Satellite failed to separate from Thor booster. No orbit.
9027	Discoverer 34	05 Nov 1961	1961-029A	1961 A EPS 1	KH-3	Mission failed. Improper launch angle resulted in extreme orbit. Gas valve failed
9028	Discoverer 35	15 Nov 1961	1961-030A	1961 A ZET 1	KH-3	All cameras operated satisfactorily. Grainy emulsion noted.
9029	Discoverer 36	12 Dec 1961	1961-034A	1961 A KAP 1	KH-3	Best mission to date. Launch carried OSCAR 1 to orbit.
9030	Discoverer 37	13 Jan 1962	DISC37	1962-F01	KH-3	Mission failed. No orbit.
9031	Discoverer 38	27 Feb 1962	1962-005A	1962 EPS 1	KH-4	First mission of the KH-4 series. Much of film slightly out of focus.
9032	Discoverer 39	18 Apr 1962	1962-011A	1962 LAM 1	KH-4	Best mission to date.
9033	FTV 1125	28 Apr 1962	1962-017A	1962 RHO 1	KH-4	Mission failed. Parachute ejector squibs holding parachute container cover failed to fire. No recovery.
9034A	FTV 1126	15 May 1962	1962-018A	1962 SIG 1	KH-5	See KH-5
9035	FTV 1128	30 May 1962	1962-021A	1962 PHI 1	KH-4	Slight corona static on film.
9036	FTV 1127	02 Jun 1962	1962-022A	1962 CHI 1	KH-4	Mission failed. During air catch. Launch carried OSCAR 2 to orbit.
9037	FTV 1129	23 Jun 1962	1962-026A	1962 A BET	KH-4	Corona static occurs on some film.
9038	FTV 1151	28 Jun 1962	1962-027A	1962 A GAM	KH-4	Severe corona static.
9039	FTV 1130	21 Jul 1962	1962-031A	1962 A ETA	KH-4	Aborted after 6 photo passes. Heavy corona and radiation fog.
9040	FTV 1131	28 Jul 1962	1962-032A	1962 A THE	KH-4	No filters on slave horizon cameras. Heavy corona and radiation fog.
9041	FTV 1152	02 Aug 1962	1962-034A	1962 A KAP 1	KH-4	Severe corona and radiation fog.
9042A	FTV 1132	01 Sep 1962	1962-044A	1962 A UPS	KH-5	See KH-5
9043	FTV 1133	17 Sep 1962	1962-046A	1962 A CHI	KH-4	placed in highly eccentric orbit (207 km x 670 km), caspule called down after one day, film suffered severe radiation fog due to SAA crossing
9044	FTV 1153	29 Aug 1962	1962-042A	1962 A SIG	KH-4	Erratic vehicle attitude. Radiation fog minimal.
9045	FTV 1154	29 Sep 1962	1962-050A	1962 B BET	KH-4	First use of stellar camera
9046A	FTV 1134	09 Oct 1962	1962-053A	1962 B EPS	KH-5	See KH-5
9047	FTV 1136	05 Nov 1962	1962-063A	1962 B OMI	KH-4	Camera door malfunctioned
9048	FTV 1135	24 Nov 1962	1962-065A	1962 B RHO	KH-4	Some film exposed through base.
9049	FTV 1155	04 Dec 1962	1962-066A	1962 B SIG	KH-4	Mission failed. During air catch chute tore
9050	FTV 1156	14 Dec 1962	1962-069A	1962 B PHI	KH-4	Best mission to date.
9051	OPS 0048	07 Jan 1963	1963-002A	1963-002A	KH-4	Erratic vehicle attitude. Frame ephemeris not created.
9052	OPS 0583	28 Feb 1963	1963-F02	1963-F02	KH-4	Mission failed. Destroyed by range safety officer
9053	OPS 0720	01 Apr 1963	1963-007A	1963-007A	KH-4	Best imagery to date.
9054	OPS 0954	12 Jun 1963	1963-019A	1963-019A	KH-4	Some imagery seriously affected by corona.
9055A	OPS 1008	26 Apr 1963	1963-F07	1963-F07	KH-5	See KH-5
9056	OPS 0999	26 Jun 1963	1963-025A	1963-025A	KH-4	Experimental camera carried. Film affected by light leaks.
9057	OPS 1266	19 Jul 1963	1963-029A	1963-029A	KH-4	Best mission to date.
9058A	OPS 1561	29 Aug 1963	1963-035A	1963-035A	KH-5	See KH-5
9059A	OPS 2437	29 Oct 1963	1963-042A	1963-042A	KH-5	See KH-5
9060	OPS 2268	09 Nov 1963	1963-F14	1963-F14	KH-4	Mission failed. No orbit.
9061	OPS 2260	27 Nov 1963	1963-048A	1963-048A	KH-4	Mission failed. Return capsule separated from satellite but remained in orbit.
9062	OPS 1388	21 Dec 1963	1963-055A	1963-055A	KH-4	Corona static fogged much of film.
9065A	OPS 2739	21 Aug 1964	1964-048A	1964-048A	KH-5	See KH-5
9066A	OPS 3236	13 Jun 1964	1964-030A	1964-030A	KH-5	See KH-5
1001	OPS 1419	24 Aug 1963	1963-034A	1963-034A	KH-4A	First mission of KH-4A. Some film was fogged. Two buckets but 1001-2 was never recovered.
1002	OPS 1353	23 Sep 1963	1963-037A	1963-037A	KH-4A	Severe light leaks
1003	OPS 3467	24 Mar 1964	1964-F04	1964-F04	KH-4A	Mission failed. Guidance system failed. No orbit.
1004	OPS 3444	15 Feb 1964	1964-008A	1964-008A	KH-4A	Main cameras operated satisfactorily. Minor degradations due to static and light leaks.
1005	OPS 2921	27 Apr 1964	1964-022A	1964-022A	KH-4A	Mission failed. Recovery vehicle impacted in Venezuela.
1006	OPS 3483	04 Jun 1964	1964-027A	1964-027A	KH-4A	Highest quality imagery attained to date from the KH-4 system.
1007	OPS 3754	19 Jun 1964	1964-032A	1964-032A	KH-4A	Out-of-focus area on some film.
1008	OPS 3491	10 Jun 1964	1964-037A	1964-037A	KH-4A	Cameras operated satisfactorily
1009	OPS 3042	05 Aug 1964	1964-043A	1964-043A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully.
1010	OPS 3497	14 Sep 1964	1964-056A	1964-056A	KH-4A	Small out of focus areas on both cameras at random times throughout the mission.
1011	OPS 3333	05 Oct 1964	1964-061A	1964-061A	KH-4A	Primary mode of recovery failed on second portion of the mission (1011-2). Small out of focus areas present at random on both cameras.
1012	OPS 3559	17 Oct 1964	1964-067A	1964-067A	KH-4A	Vehicle attitude became erratic on the second portion of the mission necessitating an early recovery.
1013	OPS 5434	02 Nov 1964	1964-071A	1964-071A	KH-4A	Program anomaly occurred immediately after launch when both cameras operated for 417 frames. Main cameras ceased operation on rev 52D of first portion of mission negating second portion. About 65% of aft camera film is out of focus.
1014	OPS 3360	18 Nov 1964	1964-075A	1964-075A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully.
1015	OPS 3358	19 Dec 1964	1964-085A	1964-085A	KH-4A	Discrepancies in planned and actual coverage due to telemetry problems during the first 6 revolutions. Small out-of-focus areas on film from aft camera.
1016	OPS 3928	15 Jan 1965	1965-002A	1965-002A	KH-4A	Smearing of highly reflective images due to reflections within camera.
1017	OPS 4782	25 Feb 1965	1965-013A	1965-013A	KH-4A	Capping shutter malfunction occurred during last 5 passes of mission.
1018	OPS 4803	25 Mar 1965	1965-026A	1965-026A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully. First KH-4A reconnaissance system to be launched into a retrograde orbit.
1019	OPS 5023	29 Apr 1965	1965-033A	1965-033A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully. Malfunction in recovery mode on 1019-2 negated recovery.
1020	OPS 8425	09 Jun 1965	1965-045A	1965-045A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily. Erratic attitude caused an early recovery after the second day of 1020-2.
1021	OPS 8431	18 May 1965	1965-037A	1965-037A	KH-4A	Aft camera ceased operation on pass 102.
1022	OPS 5543	19 Jun 1965	1965-057A	1965-057A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1023	OPS 7208	17 Aug 1965	1965-067A	1965-067A	KH-4A	Program anomaly caused the fore camera to cease operation during revolutions 103-132.
1024	OPS 7221	22 Sep 1965	1965-074A	1965-074A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily. Cameras not operated on passes 88D-93D.
1025	OPS 5325	05 Oct 1965	1965-079A	1965-079A	KH-4A	Main cameras operated satisfactorily.
1026	OPS 2155	28 Oct 1965	1965-086A	1965-086A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1027	OPS 7249	09 Dec 1965	1965-102A	1965-102A	KH-4A	Erratic attitude necessitated recovery after two days of operation. All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1028	OPS 4639	24 Dec 1965	1965-110A	1965-110A	KH-4A	Cameras operated satisfactorily.
1029	OPS 7291	02 Feb 1966	1966-007A	1966-007A	KH-4A	Both panoramic cameras were operational throughout.
1030	OPS 3488	09 Mar 1966	1966-018A	1966-018A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1031	OPS 1612	07 Apr 1966	1966-029A	1966-029A	KH-4A	The aft-looking camera malfunctioned after the recovery of bucket 1. No material was received in bucket 2 (1031-2).
1032	OPS 1508	3 May 1966	1966-F05A	1966-F05	KH-4A	Mission failed. Vehicle failed to achieve orbit.
1033	OPS 1778	24 May 1966	1966-042A	1966-042A	KH-4A	The stellar camera shutter of bucket 2 remained open for approximately 200 frames.
1034	OPS 1599	21 Jun 1966	1966-055A	1966-055A	KH-4A	Failure of velocity altitude programmer produced poor imagery after revolution 5.
1035	OPS 1703	20 Sep 1966	1966-085A	1966-085A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily. First mission flown with pan geometry modification.
1036	OPS 1545	09 Aug 1966	1966-072A	1966-072A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1037	OPS 1866	08 Nov 1966	1966-102A	1966-102A	KH-4A	Second pan geometry mission. Higher than normal base plus fog encountered on both main camera records.
1038	OPS 1664	14 Jan 1967	1967-002A	1967-002A	KH-4A	Fair image quality.
1039	OPS 4750	22 Feb 1967	1967-015A	1967-015A	KH-4A	Normal KH-4 mission. Light from horizon camera on both main camera records during 1039-1.
1040	OPS 4779	30 Mar 1967	1967-029A	1967-029A	KH-4A	Satellite flown nose first.
1041	OPS 4696	9 May 1967	1967-043A	1967-043A	KH-4A	Due to the failure of the booster cut-off switch, the satellite went into a highly eccentric orbit. There was significant image degradation.
1042	OPS 3559	16 Jun 1967	1967-062A	1967-062A	KH-4A	Small out-of-focus area in forward camera of 1042-1.
1043	OPS 4827	07 Aug 1967	1967-076A	1967-076A	KH-4A	Forward camera film came out of the rails on pass 230D. Film degraded past this point.
1044	OPS 0562	02 Nov 1967	1967-109A	1967-109A	KH-4A	All cameras operated fine.
1045	OPS 2243	24 Jan 1968	1968-008A	1968-008A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1046	OPS 4849	14 Mar 1968	1968-020A	1968-020A	KH-4A	Image quality good for 1046-1 and fair for 1046-2.
1047	OPS 5343	20 Jun 1968	1968-052A	1968-052A	KH-4A	Out-of-focus imagery is present on both main camera records.
1048	OPS 0165	18 Sep 1968	1968-078A	1968-078A	KH-4A	Film in the forward camera separated and camera failed on mission 1048-2
1049	OPS 4740	12 Dec 1968	1968-112A	1968-112A	KH-4A	Degraded film
1050	OPS 3722	19 Mar 1969	1969-026A	1969-026A	KH-4A	Due to abnormal rotational rates after revolution 22
1051	OPS 1101	2 May 1969	1969-041A	1969-041A	KH-4A	Imagery of both pan camera records is soft and lacks crispness and edge sharpness.
1052	OPS 3531	22 Sep 1969	1969-079A	1969-079A	KH-4A	Last of the KH-4A missions
1101	OPS 5089	15 Sep 1967	1967-087A	1967-087A	KH-4B	First mission of the KH-4B series. Best film to date.
1102	OPS 1001	09 Dec 1967	1967-122A	1967-122A	KH-4B	Noticeable image smear for forward camera
1103	OPS 1419	1 May 1968	1968-039A	1968-039B	KH-4B	Out-of-focus imagery is present on both main camera records.
1104	OPS 5955	07 Aug 1968	1968-065A	1968-065A	KH-4B	Best imagery to date on any KH-4 systems. Bicolor and color infrared experiments were conducted on this mission, including SO-180 IR camouflage detection film.
1105	OPS 1315	03 Nov 1968	1968-098A	1968-098A	KH-4B	Image quality is variable and displays areas of soft focus and image smear.
1106	OPS 3890	05 Feb 1969	1969-010A	1969-010A	KH-4B	The best image quality to date.
1107	OPS 3654	24 Jul 1969	1969-063A	1969-063A	KH-4B	Forward camera failed on pass 1 and remained inoperative throughout the rest of the mission.
1108	OPS 6617	04 Dec 1969	1969-105A	1969-105A	KH-4B	Cameras operated satisfactorily and the mission carried 811 ft (247 m) of aerial color film added to the end of the film supply.
1109	OPS 0440	04 Mar 1970	1970-016A	1970-016A	KH-4B	Cameras operated satisfactorily but the overall image quality of both the forward and aft records is variable.
1110	OPS 4720	20 May 1970	1970-040A	1970-040A	KH-4B	The overall image quality is less than that provided by recent missions and 2
1111	OPS 4324	23 Jun 1970	1970-054A	1970-054A	KH-4B	The overall image quality is good.
1112	OPS 4992	18 Nov 1970	1970-098A	1970-098A	KH-4B	The forward camera failed on pass 104 and remained inoperative throughout the rest of the mission.
1113	OPS 3297	17 Feb 1971	1971-F01A	1971-F01	KH-4B	Mission failed due to failure of Thor booster. Destroyed shortly after launch.
1114	OPS 5300	24 Mar 1971	1971-022A	1971-022A	KH-4B	The overall image quality is good and comparable to the best of past missions. On-board program failed after pass 235
1115	OPS 5454	10 Sep 1971	1971-076A	1971-076A	KH-4B	Overall image quality is good.
1116	OPS 5640	19 Apr 1972	1972-032A	1972-032A	KH-4B	Very successful mission and image quality was good.
1117	OPS 6371	25 May 1972	1972-039A	1972-039A	KH-4B	Last KH-4B mission. Very successful mission, failure to deploy one solar panel and leak in Agena gas system shortened mission from 19 to 6 days

Photo gallery

• AF Sat Ctrl Facility during recovery ops

• CORONA re-entry parameters

• "A Point in Time: The CORONA Story" - a document movie about the first in history project of spy satellites. Created by the CIA and NRO in 1995 to commemorate declassification of CORONA project.

See also

• KH-5-ARGON, KH-6-LANYARD, KH-7, KH-8-GAMBIT
• SAMOS
• KH-9 Hexagon "Big Bird"
• KH-10-DORIAN or Manned Orbital Laboratory
• KH-11, KH-12, KH-13.
• Satellite imagery
• Cold War
• Zenit
• Richard M. Bissell, Jr.

Popular culture

The 1963 thriller novel Ice Station Zebra and its 1968 film adaptation were inspired, in part, by news accounts from April 17, 1959, about a missing experimental Corona satellite capsule (Discoverer II) that inadvertently landed near Spitzbergen on April 13. While Soviet agents may have recovered the vehicle, it is more likely that the capsule landed in water and sank. They are also mentioned in the video-game Call of Duty: Black Ops 2.

References

Bibliography

• Burrows, William E. This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. New York: Random House, 1998.
• Chun, Clayton K.S. Thunder Over the Horizon: From V-2 rockets to Ballistic Missiles. Westport: Praeger Security International, 2006.
• Collins, Martin. After Sputnik: 50 Years of the Space Age. New York: Smithsonian Books/HarperCollins, 2007.
• "Corona." Mission and Spacecraft Library. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. No date. Accessed 2012-60-06.
• Day, Dwayen A.; Logsdon, John M.; and Latell, Brian, eds. Eye in the Sky: The Story of the Corona Spy Satellites. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998. ISBN 978-1560988304
• "Discoverer/Corona: First U.S. Reconnaissance Satellite. National Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution. 2002. Accessed 2012-06-06.
• Drell, Sidney D. "Physics and U.S. National Security." Reviews of Modern Physics. 71:2 (1999), p. S460-S470.
• Drell, Sidney D. "Reminiscences of Work on National Reconnaissance." in Nuclear Weapons, Scientists, and the Post-Cold War Challenge: Selected Papers on Arms Control. Sidney D. Drell, ed. Hackensack, N.J.: World Scientific, 2007.
• Jensen, John R. Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.
• Kramer, Herbert J. Observation of the Earth and Its Environment: Survey of Missions and Sensors. Berlin: Springer, 2002.
• Lewis, Jonathan E. Spy Capitalism: Itek and the CIA. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002.
• Monmonier, Mark S. Spying With Maps: Surveillance Technologies and the Future of Privacy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Societal Impact of Spaceflight. Washington, D.C.: NASA, 2009.
• Olsen, Richard C. Remote Sensing From Air and Space. Bellingham, Wash.: SPIE Press, 2007.
• Peebles, Curtis. The Corona Project: America's First Spy Satellites. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1997.
• Ruffner, Kevin C., ed. Corona: America's First Satellite Program. New York : Morgan James, 1995.
• Smith, F. Dow. "The Design and Engineering of Corona's Optics." in CORONA: Between the Sun & the Earth: The First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space. Robert McDonald, ed. Bethesda, Md.: ASPRS, 1997.
• Taubman, Phil. Secret Empire: Eisenhower, the CIA, and the Hidden Story of America’s Space Espionage. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. ISBN 0-684-85699-9
• Yenne, Bill. Secret Gadgets and Strange Gizmos: High-Tech (and Low-Tech) Innovations of the U.S. Military. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Publishers Group Worldwide, 2006.

External links

• US Geological Survey Satellite Images: Photographic imagery from the CORONA, ARGON and LANYARD satellites (1959 to 1972).
• Corona page at NRO
• GlobalSecurity.org: Imagery Intelligence
• A Point in Time, a documentary, is available at the Internet Archive
• Swords into Ploughshares: Archaeological Applications of CORONA Satellite Imagery in the Near East

English Journal

• Careful observation is the first thing to do in science.

• Iijima S.
• Microscopy (Oxford, England).Microscopy (Oxf).2014 Nov;63 Suppl 1:i1. doi: 10.1093/jmicro/dfu097.
• Modern industry is based largely on "Mono-tukuri" - making things. A particular issue is of finding new materials. One of examples is carbon nanotube which has been the most popular in the fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology. I would like to speak about the story of discovery of the carbon nano
• PMID 25359796

• Novel Aromatic and Antiaromatic Systems.

• Breslow R.
• Chemical record (New York, N.Y.).Chem Rec.2014 Oct 22. doi: 10.1002/tcr.201402070. [Epub ahead of print]
• Note from the Editor: August Kekulé's dream and his theory of the structure of benzene (1865). Julius Thomsen's logic that benzene contains equivalent electrons between its carbon atoms (ca. 1900). Richard Willstätter's synthesis and observation that 1,3,5,7-cyclooctatetraene is not aromatic (earl
• PMID 25335917

• Carl Wilhelm Scheele, the discoverer of oxygen, and a very productive chemist.

• West JB.
• American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol.2014 Oct 3:ajplung.00223.2014. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.00223.2014. [Epub ahead of print]
• Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786) has an important place in the history of the discovery of respiratory gases because he was undoubtedly the first person to prepare oxygen and describe some of its properties. In spite of this, his contributions have often been overshadowed by those of Joseph Priestle
• PMID 25281638

Japanese Journal

• ヒト血清アルブミンの化学修飾解析の効率化：LC/MS/MSと差異解析ソフトの利用

• 分析化学 64(9), 653-659, 2015
• NAID 130005102585

• アルツハイマー病の発見者：Alois Alzheimer

• 保健医療学雑誌 6(2), 56-61, 2015
• NAID 130005102549

• 周術期肺血栓塞栓症の第一発見者として果たすべき看護師の役割

• 日本臨床麻酔学会誌 35(2), 225-229, 2015
• NAID 130005087398

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