出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/06/12 21:08:00」(JST)
| この項目「デッド」は翻訳されたばかりのものです。不自然あるいは曖昧な表現などが含まれる可能性があり、このままでは読みづらいかもしれません。（原文：英語版 "Per "Dead" Ohlin" 18:31, 4 January 2012 (UTC)） 修正、加筆に協力し、現在の表現をより原文に近づけて下さる方を求めています。ノートページや履歴も参照してください。（2012年1月） |
| 「Dead」はこの項目へ転送されています。DEADと略記される有機化合物については「アゾジカルボン酸ジエチル」をご覧ください。 |
| デッド Dead |
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|---|---|
| 出生名 | ペル・イングヴェ・オリーン Per Yngve Ohlin |
| 別名 | デッド (Dead) ペレ (Pelle) |
| 生誕 | 1969年1月16日 |
| 出身地 | スウェーデン ストックホルム県 ストックホルム |
| 死没 | 1991年4月8日（満22歳没）ノルウェーアーケシュフース県 クロクスタ近郊 |
| ジャンル | ブラックメタル デスメタル |
| 職業 | ボーカリスト 作詞家 |
| 担当楽器 | 歌 |
| 活動期間 | 1986年 - 1991年 |
| 共同作業者 | メイヘム モービッド（英語版） |
デッド (Dead、本名:ペル・イングヴェ・オリーン (Per Yngve "Pelle" Ohlin)、1969年1月16日 - 1991年4月8日)は、スウェーデン・ストックホルム出身のヘヴィメタルミュージシャン。ノルウェーのブラックメタルバンド、メイヘム (Mayhem)のボーカリストとして著名。また、メイヘム加入前は、スウェーデンのブラック/スラッシュ/デスメタルバンド、モービッド (Morbid)に参加していた。
活動期間も短い上に、スタジオ・アルバムに参加したことは無く、ライブ・アルバムやデモテープなどにしか音源は残っていないが、その過激なパフォーマンスや凄絶な最期などにより、ブラックメタルの中でも最も有名なボーカリストの一人である。また、コープスペイントと呼ばれる死化粧をブラックメタルに取り入れたパイオニアとしても有名である。
ロードランナー・レコードの『THE 50 GREATEST METAL FRONT-MEN OF ALL TIME!』で48位にランクインした[1]。
1969年、スウェーデンの首都・ストックホルムで生まれる。出生名は、ペル・イングヴェ・オリーン(Per Yngve Ohlin)。子供のころには、睡眠時無呼吸症候群に苦しめられた[2]。10歳の時には、脾臓が破裂し内出血で苦しめられたこともある。後にオリーンが語ったことによると、アイススケートの事故だったという。しかし、スウェーデンのメタルの本、『Blod eld död』の独占インタビューでオリーンの兄弟は、オリーンは学校でいじめにあっており、そしてある日殴打が原因で脾臓破裂に至ったと語っている[3]。病院に担ぎ込まれ、一時、臨床死の状態となった[4][5]。この臨死体験の後、オリーンは死や死ぬことに魅了されていった。
1986年に、ブラック/スラッシュ/デスメタルバンド、モービッド (Morbid)を結成。このバンド活動からデッド (Dead)というステージネームを使い始めた。モービッドには、後にエントゥームドで活動する、ウフェ・セイダールンド (ギター、当時Napolean Pukesと名乗っていた)とL-G・ペトロフ (ドラムス、当時Druttenと名乗っていた)が参加していた。モービッドでは『December Moon』というデモテープに参加したが、短期間でバンドをやめることを決め、隣国ノルウェーのブラックメタルバンド、メイヘム (Mayhem)のメンバーと連絡を取った。メイヘムの当時のベーシスト、ネクロブッチャーによるとデッドは最初、デモテープと手紙、磔にされた鼠を小包に入れて送ってきたという[4][5]。ネクロブッチャーはその小包を無くしたが、連絡先は持っていたため連絡を取ることが出来た。デッドはノルウェーに移住し、1988年初めにメイヘムに加入した[4]。
インタビューで、同僚だったミュージシャン達はしばしば、デッドのことを風変りで内向的な奴だったと語っている。メイヘムのドラマーであるヘルハマーは、デッドを「とても奇妙な性格...抑鬱的、憂鬱、そして暗い」と述べている[6]。また、メイヘムのギタリスト、ユーロニモスは一度デッドについて、｢俺は正直、デッドは精神的に狂っていると思う。お前は、飢えによる苦痛を得るために絶食をする奴のことを、他にどうやって表現できる? また、葬儀の予告が書かれているTシャツを着るような奴のことを｣と述べている[7]。メイヘム初期のドラマーのマンハイムは、後にデッドの性格をダグラス・アダムズのSF小説、「銀河ヒッチハイク・ガイド」シリーズに登場するパラノイアぎみの根暗ロボット、マーヴィンになぞらえた[4]。
エンペラーの元ドラマー、ファウストは次のように述べている。
「彼[デッド]は、よくわからない奴だった。メイヘムの他のメンバーの奴らですら理解していないのではないかと思う。近寄りがたいやつだったね。彼が死ぬ2週間前にも俺は会ったよ。おそらく、合わせて6回から8回程度会っていると思う。変なことをたくさん考えているやつだった。オーシェト[ユーロニモス]が彼について話してて、ユーモアのかけらもないやつだって言っていたことを俺は覚えているよ。ユーモアはあったんだけど、とてもわかりづらかったんだよね。正直、彼はこの世の生を楽しんじゃいなかったと思う。ま、だから自殺したわけだけどさ。」[8]
メイヘムのライヴアルバム『Live in Leipzig』のディスクジャケットでは、デッドの次の言葉が印刷されている。"Jag är inte en människa. Det här är bara en dröm, och snart vaknar jag. Det var för kallt och blodet levrades hela tiden" (俺は人間じゃない。これはただの夢、だからじきに目が覚める。とても寒くて、血液はいつも凝固しているんだ。)。記事の中で、ジャーナリストのクリス・キャンピオンは、デッドはおそらくコタール症候群に罹っていたのではないかと書いている[9]。この症候群に罹っていたということは、彼が少年期のトラウマの結果、自分が死んだと信じていたことを意味している。
ライヴでは、自分の望んだイメージや雰囲気を作るために手段を選ばなかった。キャリアの初めから、彼は顔を白と黒に塗ってしまうコープスペイントを行うことで知られていた。ネクロブッチャーは、「キッスやアリス・クーパーがやっていた化粧とは関係ない。デッドは、実際に死者に見えるようにしたかったんだ。カッコよく見せたいと思ってやったわけじゃなかった。」と述べている[9]。ヘルハマーはデッドを「コープスペイントを使った初めてのブラックメタルミュージシャンだった」と語っている[10]。
死者に完璧に扮するために、デッドはステージ衣装を土に埋めて、夜のコンサートで着るために掘り返そうとしていた[4][5]。ヘルハマーは次のように述べている。
「ショーの前、デッドはステージ衣装が腐敗し始め、"墓"の香りがうつるように、土に埋めていた。彼はステージにあがると"死体"になった。そればかりか、彼は一度、俺たちに自分を土に埋めるように頼んだことがある - 肌を青白くしたがっていたのさ。」[10]
メイヘムのツアー中、彼は烏の死骸を見つけ、それをポリ袋に採集した。彼はしばしばそれを彼と共に運び、ステージに行く前には、"彼の鼻孔に死臭を伴って"歌うためにその鳥の臭いを嗅ごうとした[9]。彼はまた鳥の死骸をベッドの下に保管していた[4][5]。
スレイヤーマガジンのインタビューで、デッドはどのようにして彼とバンドがライヴでポーザーを排除しようとしたのか説明した。
「俺たちがそこで演奏する前、そこには300人ほどの群集がいたが、2曲目の"Necrolust"の中で俺たちはそいつらの周りに豚の頭を投げるようにしたんだ。たった50人が残った、俺はそれが良いんだ!...俺たちは、コンサートで、そこにあるべきでないような恐怖を欲したんだ。...もし誰かが顔面に投げつけられた血や腐敗した肉が嫌いなら、そんな奴らは失せろ」[11]
やがて、デッドの社会での情勢と彼の死への魅了[4]は、彼の精神状態を大幅に悪化させていった。彼は、ステージ上でしばしば、ナイフや割れた瓶で自傷行為を行おうとするまでになった。しかし、友人といても自傷行為を行おうとするので、彼らは彼を抑止し、彼を鎮めようとしなければならなかった[4]。それは、彼の友人の多くを心配させたが、ユーロニモスはデッドの自殺傾向に魅了された‐うわべは それがメイヘムのイメージに合うため ‐。そして、彼らによると、ユーロニモスはしばしばデッドに自殺を勧めていたという[4][9]。マンハイムは、「オーシェト[ユーロニモス]が純粋な悪からそうしたのか、それともただ弄んでいたのか、俺には分からない」と語っている[4]。
1991年には、デッドとユーロニモスは、ノルウェーのクロクスタ近郊の森の中の一軒家に住んでおり、そこはバンドのリハーサルにも使われる場所だった[5]。メイヘムのベーシスト、ネクロブッチャーは彼らと少しの間住んだ後に語ったところによると、デッドとユーロニモスは"互いの神経にとても障っていた"という[5]。1991年初頭、バーズムのヴァルグ・ヴィーケネスが、デッドの所持するショットガンの弾丸数発をデッドに送った[12]。1991年4月8日、デッドが家に一人で残っていた間に[4]、彼はナイフで手首と首を切り裂き、それから頭をショットガンで撃ち抜き、自殺を遂げた[12]。彼は短い遺書を残しており、それには室内で銃を使うことへの謝罪が書かれており、"Excuse all the blood"と〆られていた[5][13]。
遺体はユーロニモスによって発見された。ドアに鍵が掛かっており、家の鍵が無かったため、彼は開いている窓に登って家に入った[4][12]。彼はデッドの遺体を見つけるとすぐにカメラを持ち、遺体の写真を撮った[4][12]。それらは、後述するように後に商品に用いられることとなる。伝えられるところでは、彼はデッドの割れた頭蓋骨の欠片を採取したという[4]。彼がこのような行動をとった動機は不明であるが、ネクロブッチャーは、写真を撮ることや他人にそれらを見せようとすることは、友人の死を見てしまったことの衝撃への対処ではないかと推測している[4][9]。ヘルハマーが写真を現像した後、ユーロニモスは最初にその写真を破棄することを約束したが、それは結局行われなかった。ユーロニモスは、彼のレコードショップ、ヘルヴェテで封筒に入れて、それらを保管していた[4]。伝えられるところによれば、ユーロニモスは、写真のうち1枚をコロンビアのウォーマスター・レコードのオーナーに送っていた[4]。そして、それは、1995年にリリースされた、メイヘムのブートレグライヴアルバム、『Dawn of the Black Hearts』のディスクジャケットに用いられた。そのジャケットは、Gigwise.comの"The 50 Most Controversial Album Covers Of All Time"で1位にランクされている[14]。
この自殺は、ユーロニモスと彼の友人たちの間の亀裂の原因となった。彼らは、自殺前のデッドに向かってのユーロニモスの態度にうんざりしていた。特に、デッドと親しかったネクロブッチャーは、デッドの自殺を機にユーロニモスとの友人関係を断絶し、メイヘムを脱退している[4][15]。マンハイムは後に、ユーロニモスはデッドに自殺するチャンスを与えるために、故意にデッド一人を家に残すようにしたのではないかと推測している[4]。デッドの自殺は、ブラックメタルシーンの"思想の変化"を引き起こすといわれ、メイヘムのメンバーによって行われる悪名高い行為の序章であった[4][9]。
スウェーデンの新聞での死亡記事によると、デッドの葬儀はスウェーデン・ストックホルム県ハーニンゲ市の東ハーニンゲ教会 (Österhaninge kyrka)で1991年4月26日、金曜日、朝10時から開かれ[16]、東ハーニンゲ墓地 (Österhaninge kyrkogård)に埋葬された。
| タイトル | バンド | レコーディング日時 | 形式 | 備考 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Morbid Rehearsal | モービッド | 1987年8月7日 | デモテープ | |
| Live in Stockholm | モービッド | 1987年10月23日/1988年2月26日 | ライヴ・レコーディング | 2000年にリリース |
| December Moon | モービッド | 1987年12月25日 | デモテープ | |
| Dawn of the Black Hearts | メイヘム | 1990年2月28日 | ライヴ・ブートレグ | 1995年リリース |
| Freezing Moon/Carnage | メイヘム | 1990年4月 | デモテープ | 1996年にシングル『Freezing Moon』として再発 |
| Live in Leipzig | メイヘム | 1990年11月26日 | ライヴ・レコーディング | 1993年リリース |
| Out from the Dark | メイヘム | 1991年初頭 | デモアルバム(リハーサル) | 1996年リリース |
| Part of a series on |
| Human growth and development |
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| Biological milestones |
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Developmental stage theories
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Death is the termination of all biological functions that sustain an organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include biological aging (senescence), predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide, homicide, starvation, dehydration, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury.[1] Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death. Death has commonly been considered a sad or unpleasant occasion, particularly for humans, due to the affection for the being that has died and/or the termination of social and familial bonds with the deceased. Other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional pain, depression, sympathy, compassion, solitude, or saudade. The potential for an afterlife is of concern for humans and the possibility of reward or judgement and punishment for past sin with people of certain religions.
The word death comes from Old English deað, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic dauthuz (reconstructed by etymological analysis). This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem dheu- meaning the "Process, act, condition of dying".[2]
The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms for death. When a person has died, it is also said they have passed away, passed on, expired, or are gone, among numerous other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms. Bereft of life, the dead person is then a corpse, cadaver, a body, a set of remains, and when all flesh has rotted away, a skeleton. The terms carrion and carcass can also be used, though these more often connote the remains of non-human animals. As a polite reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of "decease", as in the deceased; another noun form is decedent. The ashes left after a cremation are sometimes referred to by the neologism cremains, a portmanteau of "cremation" and "remains".
Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being is able to survive all calamities, but eventually dies due to old age. Human, animal, and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from deterioration of cellular activity and ruination of regular functioning. Aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily (Hayflick & Moody, 2003).
Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence". Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii,[3] the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and homicide. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day.[4] Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries—such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany—the rate approaches 90%, i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence.[4]
Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible.[5] Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. As scientific knowledge and medicine advance, a precise medical definition of death becomes more problematic.[6]
Signs of death or strong indications that a warm-blooded animal is no longer alive are:
The concept of death is a key to human understanding of the phenomenon.[7] There are many scientific approaches to the concept. For example, brain death, as practiced in medical science, defines death as a point in time at which brain activity ceases.[7][8][9][10]
One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death would seem to refer to the moment at which life ends. However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic because there is little consensus over how to define life. This general problem applies to the particular challenge of defining death in the context of medicine.
It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died. One of the notable flaws in this approach, however, is that there are many organisms which are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled organisms). Another problem is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. Additionally, many religious traditions, including Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold that death does not (or may not) entail the end of consciousness. In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.[11]
Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of something.[12][clarification needed] In this context "death" describes merely the state where something has ceased, for example, life. Thus, the definition of "life" simultaneously defines death.
Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.
Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death" to define a person as being dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference.
However, the category of "brain death" is seen by some scholars to be problematic. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s, however, the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)."[13]
Those people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death – irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex – has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the Terri Schiavo case brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.
Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions.
The death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between different jurisdictions. A death certificate is issued in most jurisdictions, either by a doctor himself or by an administrative office upon presentation of a doctor's declaration of death.
There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then "coming back to life", sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when embalming procedures are about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive,[14] and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the rectum.[15] Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although others estimated the figure to be closer to 800.[16]
In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.[17] This "diving response", in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.[17]
As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of information-theoretic death[18] has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of cryonics.
There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success.[19] In science fiction scenarios where such technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from reversible death.
The leading cause of human death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. By an extremely wide margin, the largest unifying cause of death in the developed world is biological aging,[4] leading to various complications known as aging-associated diseases. These conditions cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds die of age-related causes.[4] In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, approaching 90%.[4] With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed. Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world.
In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.7M people in 2004.[21] Malaria causes about 400–900M cases of fever and 1–3M deaths annually.[22] AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100M by 2025.[23][24]
According to Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000—Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62M people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36M died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.[25]
Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, a World Health Organization report warned.[20]
Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.[26]
Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted.[27] Selye assumed that the adaptability is a finite supply, presented at birth. Later on, Goldstone proposed the concept of a production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit), as a capital reserve of adaptation.[28] In recent works, adaptation energy is considered as an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted.[29]
In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes for leading causes of human injury deaths in America, followed by poisoning, falls and murder.[30] Causes of death are different in different parts of the world. In high-income and middle income countries nearly half up to more than two thirds of all people live beyond the age of 70 and predominantly die of chronic diseases. In low-income countries, where less than one in five of all people reach the age of 70, and more than a third of all deaths are among children under 15, people predominantly die of infectious diseases.[31]
An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.
Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices.
A "necropsy" is an older term for a postmortem examination, unregulated, and not always a medical procedure. In modern times the term is more often used in the postmortem examination of the corpses of animals.
Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals and humans who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future.[32][33]
Cryopreservation of people or large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent information-theoretic definition of death.[18][34] It is proposed that cryopreserved people might someday be recovered by using highly advanced technology.[35][36]
Some scientific literature supports the feasibility of cryonics.[35][36][37] However, many other scientists regard cryonics with skepticism.[38] By 2015, more than 300 people have undergone cryopreservation procedures since cryonics was first proposed in 1962.[39]
Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer, or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is also determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.
A United States poll found that religious people and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people.[40] 38 percent of the polled said they would desire to have their aging process cured.
Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed.
"One of medicine's new frontiers: treating the dead", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die,[41] not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, "aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion."[42]
Before about 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls.[43] By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital.[44] By the start of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in developed countries died outside a medical institution.[44][45][46] The shift away from dying at home, towards dying in a professionalized medical environment, has been termed the "Invisible Death."[44]
In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its own mortality has for millennia been a concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry. This includes belief in resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated with atheism).[47]
Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning, funeral practices and ceremonies of honouring the deceased. The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or cremated, though among the world's cultures there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal. In the English language, blessings directed towards a dead person include rest in peace, or its initialism RIP.
Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet.[48] Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay.
Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased estate and the issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation.
Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.[49]
Death in warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutiny punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts.
Suicide in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu God Yama and Father Time.
In Brazil, a human death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry. Before being able to file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official birth at the cartório. Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means, of their family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away the burden, the hidden costs and fees, of filing for a death. For many impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to a more appealing, unofficial, local, cultural burial, which in turn raises the debate about inaccurate mortality rates.[50]
Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue with most cultures. Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites. Eastern societies (like India) may be more open to accepting it as a fait accompli, with a funeral procession of the dead body ending in an open air burning-to-ashes of the same.
Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. Belief that consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term afterlife.
After death the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle. Animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles.
Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be decomposed fully, however. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example.
Contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection. It is considered that organisms less adapted to their environment are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one.
Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where species presumed extinct abruptly "reappear" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process of speciation, an aspect of evolution. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche – and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition.
Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (notable exceptions being Hydra and the already cited jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, which research shows to be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes.
Organisms showing only asexual reproduction (e.g. bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many amoebozoans) and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction (colonial or not, like the volvocine algae Pandorina and Chlamydomonas) are "immortal" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being eaten or meeting with a fatal accident. However, in multicellular organisms (and also in multinucleate ciliates),[52] with a Weismannist development, that is, with a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and "immortal" germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line.[53]
The Volvox algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely different cell types, and as a consequence include death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated part of its life history.[53][54]
| Death portal |
A person is dead according to the information-theoretic criterion if the structures that encode memory and personality have been so disrupted that it is no longer possible in principle to recover them. If inference of the state of memory and personality are feasible in principle, and therefore restoration to an appropriate functional state is likewise feasible in principle, then the person is not dead.
|archive-url= is malformed: flag (help)Cryonics, which began in the Fifties, is the freezing - usually in liquid nitrogen - of human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the future to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the activities of the Banana Reaper.
Cryonics is an effort to save lives by using temperatures so cold that a person beyond help by today's medicine might be preserved for decades or centuries until a future medical technology can restore that person to full health.
Many cryobiologists, however, scoff at the idea...
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| Preceded by Old age |
Stages of human development Death |
Succeeded by Decomposition |
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| リンク元 | 「mortem」 |
| 拡張検索 | 「deadly」「reduced nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide」 |