WordNet

unconscious from a blow or shock or intoxication; "the boxer was out cold"; "pass out cold"
a mild viral infection involving the nose and respiratory passages (but not the lungs); "will they never find a cure for the common cold?" (同)common_cold
the sensation produced by low temperatures; "he shivered from the cold"; "the cold helped clear his head" (同)coldness
without compunction or human feeling; "in cold blood"; "cold-blooded killing"; "insensate destruction" (同)cold-blooded, inhuman, insensate
sexually unresponsive; "was cold to his advances"; "a frigid woman" (同)frigid
lacking originality or spontaneity; no longer new; "moth-eaten theories about race"; "stale news" (同)stale, dusty, moth-eaten
(color) giving no sensation of warmth; "a cold bluish grey"
extended meanings; especially of psychological coldness; without human warmth or emotion; "a cold unfriendly nod"; "a cold and unaffectionate person"; "a cold impersonal manner"; "cold logic"; "the concert left me cold"
feeling or showing no enthusiasm; "a cold audience"; "a cold response to the new play"
having a low or inadequate temperature or feeling a sensation of coldness or having been made cold by e.g. ice or refrigeration; "a cold climate"; "a cold room"; "dinner has gotten cold"; "cold fingers"; "if you are cold, turn up the heat"; "a cold beer"
having lost freshness through passage of time; "a cold trail"; "dogs attempting to catch a cold scent"
lacking the warmth of life; "cold in his grave"
marked by errorless familiarity; "had her lines cold before rehearsals started"
of a seeker; far from the object sought
so intense as to be almost uncontrollable; "cold fury gripped him"
a pass between mountain peaks (同)gap

PrepTutorEJDIC

『寒い』,冷たい;冷えた,冷やした / (性格・態度などが)『冷たい』,冷淡な,熱意のない;無情な,冷酷な / (物事が)人をがっかりさせる,つまらない / (色調が)冷たい,寒色の / (獲物のにおい臭が)かすかな,弱い / 《話》(打撃などで)意識を失った,失神した / 完全に,全く / 〈U〉《しばしばthe~》『寒さ』,寒け,冷たさ / 〈C〉,時に〈U〉『かぜ』,感冒
(山脈の)鞍部(あんぶ),山あい
頑健;耐久力

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/03/09 13:58:46」(JST)

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Psychrophiles or cryophiles (adj. cryophilic) are extremophilic organisms that are capable of growth and reproduction in cold temperatures, ranging from −20 °C to +10 °C. Temperatures as low as −15 °C are found in pockets of very salty water (brine) surrounded by sea ice. Psychrophiles are true extremophiles because they adapt not only to low temperatures but often also to further environmental constraints.^[1] They can be contrasted with thermophiles, which thrive at unusually hot temperatures. In addition to that, distinctions between mesophilic and psychrophilic cold-shock response, including lack of repression of house-keeping protein synthesis and the presence of cold-acclimation proteins (Caps) in pyschrophiles, does exist.^[2] The environments they inhabit are ubiquitous on Earth, as a large fraction of our planetary surface experiences temperatures lower than 15 °C. They are present in alpine and arctic soils, high-latitude and deep ocean waters, polar ice, glaciers, and snowfields. They are of particular interest to astrobiology, the field dedicated to the formulation of theory about the possibility of extraterrestrial life, and to geomicrobiology, the study of microbes active in geochemical processes. In experimental work at University of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1000-litre biogas digester using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 litres of methane per day, about 20–30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates.^[3]

Psychrophiles use a wide variety of metabolic pathways, including photosynthesis, chemoautotrophy (also sometimes known as lithotrophy), and heterotrophy, and form robust, diverse communities. Most psychrophiles are bacteria or archaea, and psychrophily is present in widely diverse microbial lineages within those broad groups. Additionally, recent^[when?] research has discovered novel groups of psychrophilic fungi living in oxygen-poor areas under alpine snowfields. A further group of eukaryotic cold-adapted organisms are snow algae, which can cause watermelon snow. Some multicellular eukaryotes can also be metabollicaly active at negative temperatures, such as some conifers that can still photosynthetize when it is several degrees under 0°C^[4] (conifers are known to be often more cold-resistant than broadleaf trees). Psychrophiles are interesting enzymes that are very useful models in the research of proteins.^[1] Psychrophiles are characterized by lipid cell membranes chemically resistant to the stiffening caused by extreme cold, and often create protein 'antifreezes' to keep their internal space liquid and protect their DNA even in temperatures below water's freezing point. A commonly accepted hypothesis for this cold adaptation is the activity-stability-flexibility relationship, suggesting that psychrophilic enzymes increase the flexibility of their structure to compensate for the 'freezing effect' of cold habitats.^[2]

Examples are Arthrobacter sp., Psychrobacter sp. and members of the genera Halomonas, Pseudomonas, Hyphomonas, and Sphingomonas. Another example is the Chryseobacterium greenlandensis, a psychrophile that was found in 120,000 years old ice.

Psychrophiles vs. psychrotrophs

In 1940, ZoBell and Conn stated that they have never encountered “true psychrophiles” or organisms that grow best at relatively low temperatures.^[5] In 1958, J. L. Ingraham supported this by concluding that there are very few or possibly no bacteria that fit the textbook definitions of psychrophiles. Richard Y. Morita emphasizes this by using the term “psychrotrophic” to describe organisms that do not meet the definition of psychrophiles. The confusion between the terms Psychrotrophs and psychrophiles was started because investigators were unaware of the thermolability of psychrophilic organisms at the laboratory temperatures. Due to this, early investigators did not determine the cardinal temperatures for their isolates.^[6] The similarity between these two is that they are both capable of growing at zero, but optimum and upper temperature limits for the growth are lower for psychrophiles compared to psychrotrophs.^[7] Psychrophiles are also more often isolated from permanently cold habitats compared to psychrotrophs. Although psychrophilic enzymes remain under-used because the cost of production and processing at low temperatures is higher than for the commercial enzymes that are presently in use, the attention and resurgence of research interest in psychrophiles and psychrotrophs will be a contributor to the betterment of the environment and the desire to conserve energy.^[7]

References

^ ^a ^b Feller, Georges, and Charles Gerday. "Psychrophilic Enzymes: Hot Topics in Cold Adaptation." Nat Rev Micro Nature Reviews Microbiology 1.3 (2003): 200-08. Web.
^ ^a ^b D'amico, Salvino, Tony Collins, Jean-Claude Marx, Georges Feller, and Charles Gerday. "Psychrophilic Microorganisms: Challenges for Life."EMBO Rep EMBO Reports 7.4 (2006): 385-89. Web.
^ Gupta, Sujata (2010-11-06). "Biogas comes in from the cold". New Scientist (London: Sunita Harrington). p. 14. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
^ Riou-Nivert, Philippe (2001). Les résineux - Tome 1 : connaissance et reconnaissance, p. 79 (Institut pour le développement forestier)
^ Ingraham, J. L. "Growth of psychrophilic bacteria." Journal of bacteriology 76.1 (1958): 75.
^ Morita, Richard Y. "Psychrophilic bacteria." Bacteriological reviews 39.2 (1975): 144.
^ ^a ^b Russell, N. J., P. Harrisson, I. A. Johnston, R. Jaenicke, M. Zuber, F. Franks, and D. Wynn-Williams. "Cold Adaptation of Microorganisms [and Discussion]." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B Biological Sciences.Vol. 326, No. 1237, Life at Low Temperatures (1990): 595-611. JSTOR. Web.

Yoshinori Murata; et al. (2006). "Genome-wide expression analysis of yeast response during exposure to 4C". Extremophiles 10 (2): 117–112. doi:10.1007/s00792-005-0480-1.
Mikucki JA; et al. (2009). "A contemporary microbially maintained subglacial ferrous 'ocean'". Science 324 (5925): 397–400. doi:10.1126/science.1167350. PMID 19372431.
Sandle, T. and Skinner, K. (2013). Study of psychrophilic and psychrotolerant microorganisms isolated in cold rooms used for pharmaceutical processing, Journal of Applied Microbiology, 114 (4), 1166—1174 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12101

UpToDate Contents

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1. 成人における感冒：治療および予防 the common cold in adults treatment and prevention
2. 小児における感冒：治療および予防 the common cold in children treatment and prevention
3. 成人における感冒：診断と臨床的特徴 the common cold in adults diagnosis and clinical features
4. 小児における感冒：臨床的特徴および診断 the common cold in children clinical features and diagnosis
5. 小児および思春期における亜鉛の欠乏および補充 zinc deficiency and supplementation in children and adolescents

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Overwintering biology and limits of cold tolerance in larvae of pistachio twig borer, Kermania pistaciella.

Mollaei M1, Izadi H1, Šimek P2, Koštál V2.
Bulletin of entomological research.Bull Entomol Res.2016 Aug;106(4):538-45. doi: 10.1017/S0007485316000237. Epub 2016 Apr 11.
Pistachio twig borer, Kermania pistaciella is an important pest of pistachio trees. It has an univoltine life-cycle and its larvae tunnel and feed inside pistachio twigs for almost 10 months each year. The last larval instars overwinter inside the twigs. Survival/mortality associated with low temper
PMID 27063868

Diapause and Cold Hardiness of the Almond Wasp, Eurytoma amygdali (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae), Two Independent Phenomena.

Khanmohamadi F1, Khajehali J1, Izadi H2.
Journal of economic entomology.J Econ Entomol.2016 Jun 28. pii: tow150. [Epub ahead of print]
The almond wasp, Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae), a key pest of almond, is a univoltine pest diapausing as last instar larvae inside the damaged fruits for almost nine months in a year. In this study, changes in the amount of total simple sugars, lipid, protein, glycogen, treh
PMID 27354509

Effects of diapause and cold acclimation on egg ultrastructure: new insights into the cold hardiness mechanisms of the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus.

Kreß A1,2, Kuch U3, Oehlmann J4,5, Müller R3.
Journal of vector ecology : journal of the Society for Vector Ecology.J Vector Ecol.2016 Jun;41(1):142-50. doi: 10.1111/jvec.12206.
The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae, SKUSE), is an important threat to public health due to its rapid spread and its potential as a vector. The eggs of Ae. albopictus are the most cold resistant life stage and thus, the cold hardiness of eggs is used to predict the future
PMID 27232137

Japanese Journal

アオタテハモドキの温度・日長反応と分布拡大 (特集様々な原因によるチョウの分布拡大)

平井規央,谷川哲朗,石井実
昆虫と自然 47(6), 20-23,図巻頭1p, 2012-05-00
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オーチャードグラスの低温馴化過程における生理的特性の品種間差異

眞田康治,田村健一,山田敏彦
日本草地学会誌 57(2), 80-85, 2011-07-15
秋季生長に優れる寒地向きオーチャードグラス品種を育成するために,越冬性の異なる4品種を用いて,秋季の休眠性と耐凍性の変化に及ぼす日長の影響を明らかにした。秋季の生長量は,「アキミドリ」が多く「北海28号」が少なかった。低温・24時日長条件下における耐凍性の増大と休眠の深まりは,「北海28号」は低温・自然短日々長下より約2週遅れたが,「アキミドリ」は11月17日までは日長間の差異が小さかった。「北海 …
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アオタテハモドキ(鱗翅目,タテハチョウ科)の発育と季節多型および耐寒性

平井規央,谷川哲朗,石井実
蝶と蛾 62(2), 57-63, 2011-06-30
アオタテハモドキJunonia orithya orithyaを実験室内の25,20℃の12L-12D(短日)と16L-8D(長日)および30℃の長日条件下で飼育し,発育,季節型,耐寒性を調査した.幼虫と蛹の平均発育期間は温度の上昇とともに短くなり,幼虫期の発育零点t_0と有効積算温度Kは,13.7℃と208.3日度,蛹期は13.4℃と99日度と算出された.25℃では長日・短日ともに3日目に,20 …
NAID 110008686834