WordNet
- a silvery soft waxy metallic element of the alkali metal group; occurs abundantly in natural compounds (especially in salt water); burns with a yellow flame and reacts violently in water; occurs in sea water and in the mineral halite (rock salt) (同)Na, atomic number 11
- an oral antibiotic (trade name Chloromycetin) used to treat serious infections (especially typhoid fever) (同)Chloromycetin
PrepTutorEJDIC
- ソジウム,ナトリウム(金属元素;化学記号はNa)
Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/03/14 13:37:38」(JST)
wiki en
| Clinical data | |
|---|---|
| Trade names | Pentamycetin, Chloromycetin, others[1] |
| AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
| MedlinePlus | a608008 |
| License data |
|
| Pregnancy category |
|
| Routes of administration |
Topical (eye drops), by mouth, IV, IM |
| ATC code |
|
| Legal status | |
| Legal status |
|
| Pharmacokinetic data | |
| Bioavailability | 75–90% |
| Protein binding | 60% |
| Metabolism | Liver |
| Biological half-life | 1.6-3.3 hours |
| Excretion | Kidney (5-15%), faeces (4%) |
| Identifiers | |
|
IUPAC name
|
|
| CAS Number |
|
| PubChem CID |
|
| DrugBank |
|
| ChemSpider |
|
| UNII |
|
| KEGG |
|
| ChEBI |
|
| ChEMBL |
|
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.000.262 |
| Chemical and physical data | |
| Formula | C11H12Cl2N2O5 |
| Molar mass | 323.1320 g/mol |
| 3D model (Jmol) |
|
|
SMILES
|
|
|
InChI
|
|
| (verify) | |
Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections.[3] This includes as an eye ointment to treat conjunctivitis.[4] By mouth or by injection into a vein it is used to treat meningitis, plague, cholera, and typhoid fever. Its use by mouth or by injection is only recommended when safer antibiotics cannot be used and if used monitoring both blood levels of the medication and blood cell levels every two days is recommended during treatment.[3]
Common side effects include bone marrow suppression, nausea, and diarrhea. The bone marrow suppression may result in death. To reduce the risk of side effects treatment duration should be as short as possible. People with liver or kidney problems may need lower doses. In young children a condition known as gray baby syndrome may occur which results in a swollen stomach and low blood pressure.[3] Its use near the end of pregnancy and during breastfeeding is typically not recommended.[5] Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that typically stops bacterial growth by stopping the production of proteins.[3]
Chloramphenicol was discovered in 1947.[6] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.[7] It is available as a generic medication.[3] The wholesale cost in the developing world of an intravenous dose is about 0.40 to 1.90 USD.[8] In the United States a intravenous dose costs about 41.47 USD.[9] Global issues relating to bacterial resistance have revived interest in its use.[10]
Contents
- 1 Medical uses
- 1.1 Spectrum
- 1.2 Resistance
- 2 Adverse effects
- 2.1 Aplastic anemia
- 2.2 Bone marrow suppression
- 2.3 Leukemia
- 2.4 Gray baby syndrome
- 2.5 Hypersensitivity reactions
- 2.6 Neurotoxic reactions
- 3 Pharmacokinetics
- 3.1 Use in special populations
- 3.2 Dose monitoring
- 3.3 Drug interactions
- 3.4 Drug antagonistic
- 4 Mechanism of action
- 5 History
- 6 Society and culture
- 6.1 Cost
- 6.2 Names
- 6.3 Formulations
- 6.3.1 Intravenous
- 6.3.2 Oily
- 6.3.3 Eye drops
- 7 Veterinary uses
- 8 References
- 9 Further reading
- 10 External links
Medical uses
The original indication of chloramphenicol was in the treatment of typhoid, but the now almost universal presence of multiple drug-resistant Salmonella typhi has meant it is seldom used for this indication except when the organism is known to be sensitive. Chloramphenicol may be used as a second-line agent in the treatment of tetracycline-resistant cholera.
Because of its excellent blood-brain barrier penetration (far superior to any of the cephalosporins), chloramphenicol remains the first-choice treatment for staphylococcal brain abscesses.[citation needed] It is also useful in the treatment of brain abscesses due to mixed organisms or when the causative organism is not known.
Chloramphenicol is active against the three main bacterial causes of meningitis: Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae. In the West, chloramphenicol remains the drug of choice in the treatment of meningitis in patients with severe penicillin or cephalosporin allergy and general practitioners are recommended to carry intravenous chloramphenicol in their bag. In low-income countries, the WHO no longer recommends oily chloramphenicol as first-line to treat meningitis, but recognises it may be used with caution if there are no available alternatives.[11]
Chloramphenicol has been used in the U.S. in the initial empirical treatment of children with fever and a petechial rash, when the differential diagnosis includes both Neisseria meningitidis septicaemia and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, pending the results of diagnostic investigations.
Chloramphenicol is also effective against Enterococcus faecium, which has led to its being considered for treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus.
The drug should be discontinued upon appearance of reticulocytopenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia, or any other abnormal blood study findings attributable to chloramphenicol.[12]
Spectrum
Chloramphenicol has a broad spectrum of activity and has been effective in treating ocular infections caused by a number of bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli. It is not effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The following susceptibility data represent the minimum inhibitory concentration for a few medically significant organisms.[13]
- Escherichia coli: 0.015-10,000 μg/ml
- Staphylococcus aureus: 0.06 μg/ml - > 128 μg/ml
- Streptococcus pneumoniae: 2-16 μg/ml
Each of these concentrations is dependent upon the bacterial strain being targeted. Some strains of E. coli, for example, show spontaneous emergence of chloramphenicol resistance.[14][15]
Resistance
Three mechanisms of resistance to chloramphenicol are known: reduced membrane permeability, mutation of the 50S ribosomal subunit, and elaboration of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase. It is easy to select for reduced membrane permeability to chloramphenicol in vitro by serial passage of bacteria, and this is the most common mechanism of low-level chloramphenicol resistance. High-level resistance is conferred by the cat-gene; this gene codes for an enzyme called chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, which inactivates chloramphenicol by covalently linking one or two acetyl groups, derived from acetyl-S-coenzyme A, to the hydroxyl groups on the chloramphenicol molecule. The acetylation prevents chloramphenicol from binding to the ribosome. Resistance-conferring mutations of the 50S ribosomal subunit are rare.
Chloramphenicol resistance may be carried on a plasmid that also codes for resistance to other drugs. One example is the ACCoT plasmid (A=ampicillin, C=chloramphenicol, Co=co-trimoxazole, T=tetracycline), which mediates multiple-drug resistance in typhoid (also called R factors).
Currently, some Enterococcus faecium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains are resistant to chloramphenicol. Some Veillonella spp. and Staphylococcus capitis strains have also developed resistance to chloramphenicol to varying degrees.[16]
Adverse effects
Aplastic anemia
The most serious side effect of chloramphenicol treatment is aplastic anaemia. This effect is rare and sometimes fatal. The risk of AA is high enough that alternatives should be strongly considered. Treatments are available but expensive. No way exists to predict who may or may not get this side effect. The effect usually occurs weeks or months after treatment has been stopped, and a genetic predisposition may be involved. It is not known whether monitoring the blood counts of patients can prevent the development of aplastic anaemia, but patients are recommended to have a baseline blood count with a repeat blood count every few days while on treatment.[17] Chloramphenicol should be discontinued if the complete blood count drops below 2.5 x 10 cells/l. The highest risk is with oral chloramphenicol (affecting 1 in 24,000–40,000)[18] and the lowest risk occurs with eye drops (affecting less than one in 224,716 prescriptions).[19]
Thiamphenicol, a related compound with a similar spectrum of activity, is available in Italy and China for human use, and has never been associated with aplastic anaemia[citation needed]. Thiamphenicol is available in the U.S. and Europe as a veterinary antibiotic, but is not approved for use in humans.
Bone marrow suppression
Chloramphenicol may cause bone marrow suppression during treatment; this is a direct toxic effect of the drug on human mitochondria.[20] This effect manifests first as a fall in hemoglobin levels, which occurs quite predictably once a cumulative dose of 20 g has been given. The anaemia is fully reversible once the drug is stopped and does not predict future development of aplastic anaemia. Studies in mice have suggested existing marrow damage may compound any marrow damage resulting from the toxic effects of chloramphenicol.[21]
Leukemia
Leukemia, a cancer of the blood or bone marrow, is characterized by an abnormal increase of immature white blood cells. The risk of childhood leukemia is increased, as demonstrated in a Chinese case-controlled study,[22] and the risk increases with length of treatment.
Gray baby syndrome
Intravenous chloramphenicol use has been associated with the so-called gray baby syndrome.[23] This phenomenon occurs in newborn infants because they do not yet have fully functional liver enzymes (i.e. UDP-glucuronyl transferase), so chloramphenicol remains unmetabolized in the body.[24] This causes several adverse effects, including hypotension and cyanosis. The condition can be prevented by using the drug at the recommended doses, and monitoring blood levels.[25][26][27]
Hypersensitivity reactions
Fever, macular and vesicular rashes, angioedema, urticaria, and anaphylaxis may occur. Herxheimer’s reactions have occurred during therapy for typhoid fever.[12]
Neurotoxic reactions
Headache, mild depression, mental confusion, and delirium have been described in patients receiving chloramphenicol. Optic and peripheral neuritis have been reported, usually following long-term therapy. If this occurs, the drug should be promptly withdrawn.[12]
Pharmacokinetics
Chloramphenicol is extremely lipid-soluble; it remains relatively unbound to protein and is a small molecule. It has a large apparent volume of distribution and penetrates effectively into all tissues of the body, including the brain. Distribution is not uniform, with highest concentrations found in the liver and kidney, with lowest in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid.[12] The concentration achieved in brain and cerebrospinal fluid is around 30 to 50% of the overall average body concentration, even when the meninges are not inflamed; this increases to as high as 89% when the meninges are inflamed.
Chloramphenicol increases the absorption of iron.[28]
Use in special populations
Chloramphenicol is metabolized by the liver to chloramphenicol glucuronate (which is inactive). In liver impairment, the dose of chloramphenicol must therefore be reduced. No standard dose reduction exists for chloramphenicol in liver impairment, and the dose should be adjusted according to measured plasma concentrations.
The majority of the chloramphenicol dose is excreted by the kidneys as the inactive metabolite, chloramphenicol glucuronate. Only a tiny fraction of the chloramphenicol is excreted by the kidneys unchanged. Plasma levels should be monitored in patients with renal impairment, but this is not mandatory. Chloramphenicol succinate ester (an intravenous prodrug form) is readily excreted unchanged by the kidneys, more so than chloramphenicol base, and this is the major reason why levels of chloramphenicol in the blood are much lower when given intravenously than orally.[citation needed]
Chloramphenicol passes into breast milk, so should therefore be avoided during breast feeding, if possible.[29]
Dose monitoring
Plasma levels of chloramphenicol must be monitored in neonates and patients with abnormal liver function. Plasma levels should be monitored in all children under the age of four, the elderly, and patients with renal failure. Because efficacy and toxicity of chloramphenicol are associated with a maximum serum concentration, peak levels (one hour after the intravenous dose is given) should be 10-20 µg/ml with toxicity > 40 µg/ml; trough levels (taken immediately before a dose) should be 5-10 µg/ml.[30][31]
Drug interactions
Administration of chloramphenicol concomitantly with bone marrow depressant drugs is contraindicated, although concerns over aplastic anaemia associated with ocular chloramphenicol have largely been discounted.[32]
Chloramphenicol is a potent inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 isoforms CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 in the liver.[33] Inhibition of CYP2C19 causes decreased metabolism and therefore increased levels of, for example, antidepressants, antiepileptics, proton pump inhibitors, and anticoagulants if they are given concomitantly. Inhibition of CYP3A4 causes increased levels of, for example, calcium channel blockers, immunosuppressants, chemotherapeutic drugs, benzodiazepines, azole antifungals, tricyclic antidepressants, macrolide antibiotics, SSRIs, statins, cardiac antiarrhythmics, antivirals, anticoagulants, and PDE5 inhibitors.[12][34]
Drug antagonistic
Chloramphenicol is antagonistic with most Cephalosporins and using both together should be avoided in the treatment of infections.[35]
Mechanism of action
Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic by inhibiting protein synthesis. It prevents protein chain elongation by inhibiting the peptidyl transferase activity of the bacterial ribosome. It specifically binds to A2451 and A2452 residues[36] in the 23S rRNA of the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation.[37] While chloramphenicol and the macrolide class of antibiotics both interact with ribosomes, chloramphenicol is not a macrolide. It directly interferes with substrate binding, whereas macrolides sterically block the progression of the growing peptide.[38][39][40]
History
Chloramphenicol was originally derived from the bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae, isolated by David Gottlieb, and introduced into clinical practice in 1949, under the trade name Chloromycetin. It was the first antibiotic to be manufactured synthetically on a large scale.
In 2007, the accumulation of reports associating aplastic anemia and blood dyscrasia with chloramphenicol eye drops lead to the classification of “probable” according to World Health Organization criteria, based on the known published case reports and the spontaneous reports submitted to the National Registry of Drug-Induced Ocular Side Effects.[41]
Society and culture
Cost
In many areas of the world an intravenous dose is about 0.40 to 1.90 USD.[8] In the United States it costs about 3.60 USD per dose in oral tablet form at whole sale.
Names
Chloramphenicol is available as a generic worldwide under many brandnames[42] and also under various generic names in eastern Europe and Russia, including chlornitromycin, levomycetin, and chloromycetin; the racemate is known as synthomycetin.[43]
Formulations
Pure chloramphenicol
Chloramphenicol is available as a capsules or as a liquid . In some countries, it is sold as chloramphenicol palmitate ester (CPE). CPE is inactive, and is hydrolysed to active chloramphenicol in the small intestine. No difference in bioavailability is noted between chloramphenicol and CPE.
Manufacture of oral chloramphenicol in the U.S. stopped in 1991, because the vast majority of chloramphenicol-associated cases of aplastic anaemia are associated with the oral preparation. No oral formulation of chloramphenicol is now available in the U.S.
In molecular biology, chloramphenicol is prepared in ethanol.
Intravenous
The intravenous (IV) preparation of chloramphenicol is the succinate ester, because pure chloramphenicol does not dissolve in water. This creates a problem: Chloramphenicol succinate ester is an inactive prodrug and must first be hydrolysed to chloramphenicol; however, the hydrolysis process is often incomplete, and 30% of the dose is lost and removed in the urine. Serum concentrations of IV chloramphenicol are only 70% of those achieved when chloramphenicol is given orally.[44] For this reason, the dose needs to be increased to 75 mg/kg/day when administered IV to achieve levels equivalent to the oral dose.[45]
Oily
Oily chloramphenicol (or chloramphenicol oil suspension) is a long-acting preparation of chloramphenicol first introduced by Roussel in 1954; marketed as Tifomycine, it was originally used as a treatment for typhoid. Roussel stopped production of oily chloramphenicol in 1995; the International Dispensary Association has manufactured it since 1998, first in Malta and then in India from December 2004.[46]
Oily chloramphenicol is recommended by the World Health Organization as the first-line treatment of meningitis in low-income countries, and appears on the WHO essential drugs list. It was first used to treat meningitis in 1975[47] and numerous studies since have demonstrated its efficacy.[48][49][50] It is the cheapest treatment available for meningitis (US$5 per treatment course, compared to US$30 for ampicillin and US$15 for five days of ceftriaxone). It has the great advantage of requiring only a single injection, whereas ceftriaxone is traditionally given daily for five days. This recommendation may yet change, now that a single dose of ceftriaxone (cost US$3) has been shown to be equivalent to one dose of oily chloramphenicol.[51]
Eye drops
Chloramphenicol is still used occasionally in topical preparations (ointments and eye drops) for the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. Isolated case reports of aplastic anaemia following use of chloramphenicol eyedrops exist, but the risk is estimated to be less than one in 224,716 prescriptions.[19] In Mexico, this is the treatment used prophylactically in newborns.
Veterinary uses
Although its use in veterinary medicine is highly restricted, chloramphenicol still has some important veterinary uses.[52] It is currently considered the most useful treatment of chlamydial disease in koalas.[53][54] The pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol have been investigated in koalas.[55]
Although unpublished, recent research suggests chloramphenicol could also be applied to frogs to prevent their widespread destruction from fungal infections.[56] It has recently been discovered to be a life-saving cure for chytridiomycosis in amphibians.[57] Chytridiomycosis is a fungal disease, blamed for the extinction of one-third of the 120 frog species lost since 1980.
References
- ^ Woods, Adrienne L. (2008). Delmar nurse's drug handbook. (2009 ed.). Clifton Park, N.Y.: Delmar. p. 296. ISBN 9781428361065.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol". PubChem.
- ^ a b c d e "Chloramphenicol". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved Aug 1, 2015.
- ^ Edwards, Keith H. (2009). Optometry: Science, Techniques and Clinical Management. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 102. ISBN 0750687789.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol Pregnancy and Breastfeeding Warnings". Multum Information Services. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
- ^ Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology. OUP Oxford. 2009. p. 56. ISBN 9780191039621.
- ^ "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
- ^ a b "Chloramphenicol". International Drug Price Indicator Guide. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol Prices, Coupons & Patient Assistance Programs - Drugs.com". Drugs.com.
- ^ Falagas, M. E.; Grammatikos, A. P.; Michalopoulos, A. (October 2008). "Potential of old-generation antibiotics to address current need for new antibiotics". Expert Review of Anti Infective Therapy. 6 (5): 593–600. doi:10.1586/14787210.6.5.593. PMID 18847400.
- ^ "WHO meningitis epidemic guidelines Africa". Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ a b c d e "Drug Insert from DailyMed". Retrieved 18 April 2014.
- ^ http://antibiotics.toku-e.com/antimicrobial_507.html
- ^ Carone, BR; Xu, T; Murphy, KC; Marinus, MG (Jan 2014). "High incidence of multiple antibiotic resistant cells in cultures of in enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7.". Mutation research. 759: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2013.11.008. PMID 24361397.
- ^ Moore, AM; Patel, S; Forsberg, KJ; Wang, B; Bentley, G; Razia, Y; Qin, X; Tarr, PI; Dantas, G (2013). "Pediatric fecal microbiota harbor diverse and novel antibiotic resistance genes.". PLoS ONE. 8 (11): e78822. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078822. PMC 3827270. PMID 24236055.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol spectrum of bacterial susceptibility and Resistance" (PDF). Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ Hammett-Stabler, C.; Johns, T. (May 1988). "Laboratory guidelines for monitoring of antimicrobial drugs". Clinical Chemistry. 44 (5): 1129–1140. PMID 9590397.
- ^ Wallerstein, R.; Condit, P.; Kasper, C.; Brown, J.; Morrison, F. (June 1969). "Statewide study of chloramphenicol therapy and fatal aplastic anemia". JAMA. 208 (11): 2045–2050. doi:10.1001/jama.208.11.2045. PMID 5818983.
- ^ a b Lancaster, T.; Stewart, A. M.; Jick, H. (1998). "Risk of serious haematological toxicity with use of chloramphenicol eye drops in a British general practice database". British Medical Journal. 316 (7132): 667. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7132.667. PMC 28473. PMID 9522792.
- ^ Yunis AA (September 1989). "Chloramphenicol toxicity: 25 years of research". Am. J. Med. 87 (3N): 44N–48N. PMID 2486534.
- ^ Morley, Alec; Trainor, Kevin; Remes, Judith (1 April 1976). "Residual Marrow Damage: Possible Explanation for Idiosyncrasy to Chloramphenicol". British Journal of Haematology. 32 (4): 525–532. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.1976.tb00955.x.
- ^ Shu, X.; Gao, Y.; Linet, M.; Brinton, L.; Gao, R.; Jin, F.; Fraumeni, J. (October 1987). "Chloramphenicol use and childhood leukaemia in Shanghai". Lancet. 2 (8565): 934–937. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(87)91420-6. PMID 2889862.
- ^ McIntyre, J.; Choonara, I. (2004). "Drug toxicity in the neonate". Biology of the Neonate. 86 (4): 218–221. doi:10.1159/000079656. PMID 15249753.
- ^ Piñeiro-Carrero, V.; Piñeiro, E. (2004). "Liver" (pdf). Pediatrics. 113 (4 Supplement): 1097–1106. PMID 15060205.
- ^ Feder, H. (1986). "Chloramphenicol: what we have learned in the last decade". Southern Medical Journal. 79 (9): 1129–1134. doi:10.1097/00007611-198609000-00022. PMID 3529436.
- ^ Mulhall, A.; de Louvois J.; Hurley, R. (1983). "Chloramphenicol toxicity in neonates: its incidence and prevention". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition). 287 (6403): 1424–1427. doi:10.1136/bmj.287.6403.1424. PMC 1549666. PMID 6416440.
- ^ Forster, J.; Hufschmidt, C.; Niederhoff, H.; Künzer, W. (1985). "[Need for the determination of chloramphenicol levels in the treatment of bacterial-purulent meningitis with chloramphenicol succinate in infants and small children]". Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde (in German). 133 (4): 209–213. PMID 4000136.
- ^ Harold M. Silverman; Pharm.D. (-in-chief), eds. (2006). "Iron Supplements". Pill Book, The (12th revised ed.). New York: Bantam Dell. pp. 593–596. ISBN 978-0-553-58892-7.
- ^ kidsgrowth.org --> Drugs and Other Substances in Breast Milk Retrieved on June 19, 2009
- ^ Hammett-Stabler, C; Johns, T. (May 1988). "Laboratory guidelines for monitoring of antimicrobial drugs". Clinical Chemistry. 44 (5): 1129–1140. PMID 9590397.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol (Lexi-Drugs)". Lexi-Comp Online. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
- ^ [1] June 2005. Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (RPSGB)
- ^ Park, J. Y.; Kim, K. A.; Kim, S. L. (November 2003). "Chloramphenicol Is a Potent Inhibitor of Cytochrome P450 Isoforms CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 in Human Liver Microsomes". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 47 (11): 3464–3469. doi:10.1128/AAC.47.11.3464-3469.2003. PMC 253795. PMID 14576103.
- ^ "Facts for prescribers (Fakta för förskrivare)" (in Swedish). FASS - Swedish National Drug Formulary.
- ^ "Antagonistic effect of chloramphenicol in combination with cefotaxime or ceftriaxone". Retrieved August 25, 2014.
- ^ Schifano JM, Edifor R, Sharp JD, et al. (May 2013). "Mycobacterial toxin MazF-mt6 inhibits translation through cleavage of 23S rRNA at the ribosomal A site". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110: 8501–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.1222031110. PMC 3666664. PMID 23650345.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol". The Merck Manual. Merck.
- ^ Jardetzky, O. (July 1963). "Studies on the Mechanism of Action of Chloramphenicol - The Conformation of Chloramphenicol in Solution" (pdf). The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 238 (7): 2498–2508. PMID 13957484.
- ^ Wolfe, A. D.; Hahn, F. E. (1965). "Mode of Action of Chloramphenicol. IX. Effects of Chloramphenicol Upon a Ribosomal Amino Acid Polymerization System and Its Binding to Bacterial Ribosome". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 95: 146–155. doi:10.1016/0005-2787(65)90219-4. PMID 14289020.
- ^ Hahn, F. E.; Wisseman, C. L. Jr.; Hopps, H. E. (1955). "Mode of Action of Chloramphenicol III. : Action of Chloramphenicol on Bacterial Energy Metabolism". Journal of Bacteriology. 69 (2): 215–223. PMC 357505. PMID 14353832.
- ^ Fraunfelder, F.; Fraunfelder, F (September 2013). "Restricting Topical Ocular Chloramphenicol Eye Drop Use in the United States. Did We Overreact?". American Journal of Ophthalmology. 156 (3): 420–422. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2013.05.004. PMID 23953152.
- ^ Drugs.com drugs.com international listings for chloramphenicol Page accessed July 9, 2015
- ^ The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition, 1970-1979 (3 ed.). The Gale Group, Inc. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
- ^ Glazko, A. J.; Dill, W. A.; Kinkel, A. W. (1977). "Absorption and excretion of parenteral doses of chloramphenicol sodium succinate in comparison with per oral doses of chloramphenicol (abstract)". Clinical Pharmacological Therapy. 21: 104.
- ^ Bhutta, Z.; Niazi, S.; Suria, A. (March–April 1992). "Chloramphenicol Clearance in Typhoid Fever: Implications for Therapy". Indian Journal of Pediatry. 59 (2): 213–219. doi:10.1007/BF02759987. PMID 1398851.
- ^ Lewis, R. F.; Dorlencourt, F.; Pinel, J. (1998). "Long-acting oily Chloramphenicol for Meningococcal Meningitis". Lancet. 352 (9130): 823. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)60723-4. PMID 9737323.
- ^ Rey, M.; Ouedraogo, L.; Saliou, P.; Perino, L. (1976). "Traitement minute de la méningite cérébrospinale épidémique par injection intramusculaire unique de chloramphénicol (suspension huileuse)". Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses (in French). 6 (4): 120–124. doi:10.1016/S0399-077X(76)80134-5.
- ^ Wali, S.; Macfarlane, J.; Weir, W.; Cleland, P.; Ball, P.; Hassan-King, M.; Whittle, H.; Greenwood, B. (1979). "Single injection treatment of meningococcal meningitis. 2. Long-acting chloramphenicol". Transactions of the Royal Society for Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 73 (6): 698–702. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(79)90024-5. PMID 538813.
- ^ Puddicombe, J.; Wali, S.; Greenwood, B. (1984). "A field trial of a single intramuscular injection of long-acting chloramphenicol in the treatment of meningococcal meningitis". Transactions of the Royal Society for Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 78 (3): 399–403. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(84)90132-9. PMID 6464136.
- ^ Pécoulm B.; Varaine, F.; Keita, M.; Soga, G.; Djibo, A.; Soula, G.; Abdou, A.; Etienne, J.; Rey, M. (October 1991). "Long-acting chloramphenicol versus intravenous ampicillin for treatment of bacterial meningitis". Lancet. 338 (8771): 862–866. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)91511-R. PMID 1681224.
- ^ Nathan, N.; Borel, T.; Djibo, A. (2005). "Ceftriaxone as effective as long-acting chloramphenicol in short-course treatment of meningococcal meningitis during epidemics: a randomised non-inferiority study". Lancet. 366 (9482): 308–313. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66792-X. PMID 16039333.
- ^ "Chloramphenicol and Congeners". Merck Manuals. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
- ^ Govendir, M (16 May 2011). "Plasma concentrations of chloramphenicol after subcutaneous administration to koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) with chlamydiosis". Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 35: 147–154. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.2011.01307.x.
- ^ Griffith, J. (2012). "Diagnosis, treatment and outcomes for koala chlamydiosis at a rehabilitation facility (1995–2005)". Australian Veterinary Journal. 90 (90): 457–463. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.2012.00963.x. PMID 23106328.
- ^ Black, Lisa. "Pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol following administration of intravenous and subcutaneous chloramphenicol sodium succinate, and subcutaneous chloramphenicol, to koalas ( Phascolarctos cinereus )". Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 36: 478–485. doi:10.1111/jvp.12024.
- ^ Griggs, K. (2007-10-30). "Frog killer fungus 'breakthrough'". BBC News.
- ^ Poulter RTM, Busby JN, Bishop PJ, Butler MI, Speare R. "Chloramphenicol cures chytridiomycosis" (pdf). NZ Frogs.
Further reading
- Jardetzky, O. (1963). "Studies on the Mechanism of Action of Chloramphenicol". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 238 (7): 2498–2508.
External links
- Chloramphenicol bound to proteins in the PDB
- MedlinePlus DrugInfo uspdi-202125
Antibiotics and chemotherapeutics for dermatological use (D06)
|
|||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antibiotics |
|
||||||||||
| Chemotherapeutics |
|
||||||||||
Gynecological anti-infectives and antiseptics (G01)
|
|||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antibiotics |
|
||||||||||||||
| Arsenic compounds |
|
||||||||||||||
| Quinoline derivatives |
|
||||||||||||||
| Organic acids |
|
||||||||||||||
| Sulfonamides |
|
||||||||||||||
| Antifungals |
|
||||||||||||||
| Other |
|
||||||||||||||
Antibacterials: protein synthesis inhibitors (J01A, J01B, J01F, J01G, QJ01XQ)
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 30S |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 50S |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| EF-G |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Drugs used for diseases of the ear (S02)
|
|
|---|---|
| Infection |
|
| Corticosteroids |
|
| Analgesics and anesthetics |
|
| Authority control |
|
|---|
UpToDate Contents
全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.
- 1. グラム陰性桿菌性髄膜炎：治療 gram negative bacillary meningitis treatment
- 2. 髄膜炎菌感染の治療および予防 treatment and prevention of meningococcal infection
- 3. 再生不良性貧血：病因、臨床症状および診断 aplastic anemia pathogenesis clinical manifestations and diagnosis
- 4. 先天性および後天性鉄芽球性貧血の原因 causes of congenital and acquired sideroblastic anemias
- 5. 月齢1ヶ月以上の小児における急性細菌性髄膜炎：治療および予後 bacterial meningitis in children older than one month treatment and prognosis
English Journal
- Photocatalytic degradation of the antibiotic chloramphenicol and effluent toxicity effects.
- Lofrano G1, Libralato G2, Adinolfi R3, Siciliano A4, Iannece P3, Guida M4, Giugni M5, Volpi Ghirardini A2, Carotenuto M3.
- Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf.2016 Jan;123:65-71. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.07.039. Epub 2015 Aug 7.
- PMID 26256248
- Pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol following administration of intravenous and subcutaneous chloramphenicol sodium succinate, and subcutaneous chloramphenicol, to koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus).
- Black LA1, McLachlan AJ, Griffith JE, Higgins DP, Gillett A, Krockenberger MB, Govendir M.
- Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.J Vet Pharmacol Ther.2013 Oct;36(5):478-85. doi: 10.1111/jvp.12024. Epub 2012 Nov 17.
- PMID 23157306
- Assessment of enzymatic prodrug stability in human, dog and simulated intestinal fluids.
- Borde AS1, Karlsson EM, Andersson K, Björhall K, Lennernäs H, Abrahamsson B.
- European journal of pharmaceutics and biopharmaceutics : official journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik e.V.Eur J Pharm Biopharm.2012 Apr;80(3):630-7. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2011.11.011. Epub 2011 Dec 4.
- PMID 22155764
Japanese Journal
- コハク酸メチルプレドニゾロンナトリウム(ソル・メドロール^【○!R】)による蕁麻疹型薬疹の1例
- 森 晶子,波多野 裕二,秀 道広,金子 栄,山本 昇壯
- 西日本皮膚科 = The Nishinihon journal of dermatology 61(5), 649-652, 1999-10-01
- コハク酸メチルプレドニゾロンナトリウム(ソル·メドロール<SUP>®</SUP>)による蕁麻疹型薬疹の1例を報告した。23歳の女性。右臀部の悪性軟部腫瘍に対し, 多剤併用化学療法を施行する際にソル·メドロール<SUP>®</SUP>を投与した。投与開始約15分後, ほぼ全身に浮腫性紅斑が出現し, 約1時間後 …
- NAID 10019140727
- アスピリン拡張喘息 (Asthma Relieved by Aspirin, ARA) の1例 : 本邦第1例目の呈示と病態の検討
- 妹川 史朗,佐藤 篤彦,谷口 正実,豊嶋 幹生,中澤 浩二,早川 啓史,千田 金吾
- アレルギー 41(11), 1597-1604, 1992
- 各種NSAID投与にて気管支拡張を認める喘息 (アスピリン拡張喘息 ; ARAと仮称) の本邦第1例目を報告する. 症例は51歳, 男性. 41歳発症の喘息, 副鼻腔炎合併. IgE (RIST) 1, 400IU/ml, 皮膚テストでダニ, ハウスダスト, スギが陽性. ダニ10^<-4>吸入にて二相性の喘息反応を認めた. アスピリンDLリジン静注でFEV_1 2.17→2.82 I …
- NAID 110002421155
- OfloxacinとChloramphenicolを併用し治癒した腸チフスの2症例
- 栗村 統,市村 宏,甲田 徹三,本田 繁則,田村 偉久夫,土井 秀之
- 感染症学雑誌 64(6), 752-757, 1990
- 最近OFLX単独投与では臨床症状が改善されず, CPsuccinate 2.0g/日を6日間併用して治癒した腸チフスの2例を経験したので報告する. 2例とも男性で年齢はそれぞれ21歳, 17歳である. ともにOFLX900mg/日を投与したが解熱傾向が認められず, それぞれ3日目, 4日目よりCPsuccinate 2.0g/日を併用し, 両例とも3日目より平熱となった. CPsuccinateの …
- NAID 130004329681
Related Links
- Chloramphenicol Sodium Succinate reference guide for safe and effective use from the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (AHFS DI). ... Cautions for Chloramphenicol Sodium Succinate Contraindications Known ...
- IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN PRESCRIBING CHLORAMPHENICOL SODIUM SUCCINATE FOR INJECTION: Chloramphenicol sodium succinate for injection is intended for IV use only. It has been demonstrated to be ...
Related Pictures
★リンクテーブル★
| リンク元 | 「chloramphenicol palmitate」「コハク酸クロラムフェニコールナトリウム」 |
| 関連記事 | 「succinate」「chloramphenicol」「sodium succinate」 |
「chloramphenicol palmitate」
「コハク酸クロラムフェニコールナトリウム」
「succinate」
[★] コハク酸、コハク酸塩、コハク酸エステル, succinic acid