アルミニウム, Al 　

WordNet

a silvery ductile metallic element found primarily in bauxite (同)aluminium, Al, atomic number 13

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《英》=aluminum
《米》アルミニウム(金属元素の一つ;化学記号は『Al』;《英》alminium)
aluminumの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/06/29 10:55:05」(JST)

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この項目では、元素について説明しています。鉱物については「自然アルミニウム」をご覧ください。

アルミニウム（羅: aluminium^[2]、英: aluminium, aluminum [ˌæljəˈminiəm, əˈljuːmənəm]）は、原子番号 13、原子量 26.98 の元素である。元素記号は Al。銀に似た外見をもち軽いことから軽銀（けいぎん）と呼ばれることもある。アルミニウムをアルミと略すことも多い。

「アルミ箔」、「アルミサッシ」、一円硬貨などアルミニウムを使用した日用品は数多く、非常に生活に身近な金属である。天然には化合物のかたちで広く分布し、ケイ素や酸素とともに地殻を形成する主な元素の一つである。自然アルミニウム (Aluminium, Native Aluminium) というかたちで単体での産出も知られているが、稀である。

単体は銀白色の金属で、常温常圧で良い熱伝導性・電気伝導性を持ち、加工性が良く、実用金属としては軽量であるため、広く用いられている。熱力学的に酸化されやすい金属ではあるが、空気中では表面にできた酸化皮膜により内部が保護されるため高い耐食性を持つ^[3]。

1 単体の性質
- 1.1 化学的性質
- 1.2 機械的性質
2 生産
- 2.1 電力を必要としない生産方法
3 用途
- 3.1 アルミニウム粉
4 人体への影響
5 植物への影響
- 5.1 作用機序
- 5.2 アルミニウム耐性植物
- 5.3 アルミニウム耐性土壌菌
- 5.4 この節の参考文献
6 化合物
7 歴史
8 同位体
- 8.1 物質
- 8.2 アルミ製品
9 脚注
10 関連項目
11 外部リンク

単体の性質

単体は常温常圧では良好な熱伝導性・電気伝導性を持つ。融点 660.32 ℃、沸点 2519 ℃（別の報告もある）。密度は2.7 g/cm³で、金属としては軽量である。常温では面心立方格子構造が最も安定となる。酸やアルカリに侵されやすいが、空気中では表面に酸化アルミニウムAl₂O₃の膜ができ、内部は侵されにくくなる。この保護現象は酸化物イオンO^2-のイオン半径 (124 pm) とアルミニウムの原子半径 (143 pm) が近く、アルミニウムイオンAl³⁺ (68 pm) が酸化物の表面構造の隙間にすっぽり収まることが深く関係している。また濃硝酸に対しても表面に酸化被膜を生じ反応の進行は停止する（不動態）^[4]^[5]。陽極酸化による酸化被膜はアルマイトとも呼ばれる。

化学的性質

アルミニウムは両性金属で、酸にも塩基にも溶解する。塩基性の水溶液では、以下の反応によって水が還元されて水素を発生する。

${\rm {6OH^{-}+2Al+6H_{2}O\longrightarrow 6OH^{-}+2Al(OH)_{3}+3H_{2}}}$

ただし、生成する水酸化アルミニウムの溶解度積 ([Al³⁺][OH^-]³) は1.92 × 10^-32であり、ほとんど水に溶解しない。したがって、薄い塩基では皮膜が発生して反応が止まる。しかし、強塩基条件では水酸化アルミニウムが次式によって水溶性のアルミン酸を形成するため、反応は表面のみでなく内部まで進行する。

${\rm {OH^{-}+Al(OH)_{3}+2H_{2}O\longrightarrow [Al(OH)_{4}(H_{2}O)_{2}]^{-}}}$

したがってアルミニウムと強塩基水溶液との反応はこれらの式を合わせて以下のようになる^[5]。 ${\rm {2Al+10H_{2}O+2OH^{-}\longrightarrow 2[Al(OH)_{4}(H_{2}O)_{2}]^{-}+3H_{2}}}$

機械的性質

アルミニウムは鉄の約35%の比重であり、密度は (2.70 g/cm³) と低く金属の中でも軽量な方に属し、展性に富む。純アルミニウムは強度は低いが、ジュラルミンなどのアルミニウム合金はその軽量さ、加工のしやすさを活かしつつ強度を飛躍的に改善しているため、様々な製品に採用され、産業界で幅広く利用されている（「用途」を参照）。

アルミニウム合金は軟鋼などと違い、応力がかかった時の変形に降伏現象を示さない。それは侵入型固溶体である炭素によるコットレル雰囲気を持つ鉄合金とは違い、アルミニウム合金には置換型固溶体合金が多いことに起因する^[6]。よって、構造設計等の計算を行う場合には、材料力学では降伏点の代わりに「0.2%耐力」が代わりに用いられる。「0.2%耐力」とは、応力をかけた際の永久ひずみが0.2%になる時の応力である^[7]。こういった特性のために、アルミは押し出し成形や摩擦攪拌接合に向いている。

生産

ボーキサイト。赤い色をしているのは、中に含まれている鉄分のためである。

アルミニウムは、鉱物のボーキサイトを原料としてホール・エルー法で生産されるのが一般的である。ボーキサイトを水酸化ナトリウムで処理し、アルミナ（酸化アルミニウム）を取り出した後、氷晶石（ヘキサフルオロアルミン酸ナトリウム、Na₃AlF₆）と共に溶融し電気分解を行う。したがって、アルミニウムを作るには大量の電力が消費されることから「電気の缶詰」と呼ばれることもある。ちなみに、ホール・エルー法での純度は約98%なので、より高純度なアルミニウムを得るには三層電解法を使う。アルミニウム1トンを生産するために消費される材料およびエネルギーは以下の通りである^[6]^[8]。なお、1トン当たりの電力使用量は銅で1200kWh、亜鉛で4000kWhであり^[9]、アルミニウムの精錬には銅の約11倍、亜鉛の約3.5倍の電力が必要となる計算になる。

アルミナ 1.96トン（ボーキサイト 4トン）
氷晶石 0.07トン
炭素陽極 0.5トン
電力 13000〜14000 kWh

電力価格が高いためコスト競争に弱い^[8]日本国内のアルミニウム精錬事業は、オイルショック後採算困難になり、大部分は国外に拠点が移った^[6]。日本国内で原石（ボーキサイト）から製品まで一貫生産を行っていたのは、自前の水力発電所により自家発電を行っているため低価格の電力が入手可能な日本軽金属（蒲原製造所・静岡市清水区）のみであったが、設備の老朽化と採算性の理由で2014年3月で閉鎖となった^[10]。

ボーキサイトからアルミニウムを精練するのに比し、アルミニウム屑からリサイクルして地金を作る方がコストやエネルギーが少なく済む。そのため、回収された空き缶等をリサイクル原料とし、電気炉等を用いる形態で再生するケースは徐々に増えている。アルミニウム屑を溶解するにあたっても融点が約660 °Cと銅や鉄などの主要金属の中では低い方なので少ないエネルギーで行うことができる。ボーキサイトからアルミニウム地金を生産するのに比べ、アルミ缶からアルミニウム地金を生産するのはわずか3%の電力消費で済む^[11]。こうした利点があるため、アルミニウムは日本国内において最もリサイクル化が進んでいる金属であり、アルミ缶のリサイクル率は94.7%（平成24年度）にも達する^[12]。こうしたことから、アルミニウムはしばしば「リサイクルの優等生」や「リサイクルの王様」と表現される。

順位	国	アルミニウム生産量 (千トン)
—	世界合計	49,300^[13]
1	中国	23,300^[13]
2	ロシア	3,500^[13]
3	カナダ	2,940^[13]
4	アラブ首長国連邦	2,400^[13]
5	インド	2,100^[13]
6	アメリカ	1,720^[13]
7	オーストラリア	1,680^[13]
8	ノルウェー	1,200^[13]
9	ブラジル	960^[13]
10	バーレーン	930^[13]
11	アイスランド	810^[13]
12	南アフリカ	735^[13]
13	カタール	610^[13]
14	モザンビーク	560^[13]
15	サウジアラビア	500^[13]
15	ドイツ	500^[13]
17	アルゼンチン	425
—	その他	4,440^[13]

アルミニウムの生産量は2014年時点で4930万トンに及ぶ。中国が約40％を生産し、これにロシア、カナダを加えた3カ国で生産量の過半数を占める。中国、ロシアはボーキサイト原産国でもある。他のボーキサイト原産国であるアメリカ、オーストラリア、ブラジル、インドも世界生産量のシェア10位以内に含まれる。一方で、ボーキサイトの世界4位の生産国であるギニアや同第5位のジャマイカでまったくアルミニウムが生産されていないように、ボーキサイトの生産とアルミニウムの精練工場との間にはそれほど強い関連性はない。

これに対し、電力供給とアルミニウム精錬工場との間には強い相関性がある。アルミニウムは精錬に非常に多くの電力を消費するため、ボーキサイトからの精練は電力の安い国で行われる傾向が強い。アラブ首長国連邦やカタールは豊富な石油を元にした火力発電で、またカナダやノルウェーは地形を生かした水力発電で、アイスランドは水力発電と地熱発電によっていずれも電力が安価であるため、アルミニウムの大生産国となっている。14位のモザンビークは、カボラバッサダムの豊富な電力に目を付けたBHPビリトンや三菱商事が精錬会社としてモザール社を設立し、2000年に工場が稼働し始めたことで大生産国となった。ここで精錬されたアルミニウムはモザンビークの総輸出額の50%を占め^[14]、モザンビークの基幹産業として同国の経済成長を支えている。

アルミニウムの消費量も中国が飛びぬけて多く、2014年には2406万トンを消費して、全世界生産量5005万トンのほぼ半分を消費している。消費量は次いで米国が多く、さらにドイツ、日本と続く^[15]。

アルミニウム生産企業としては、カナダのリオ・ティント・アルキャン、ロシアのルサール（ロシア・アルミニウム）、アメリカのアルコア、中国の中国アルミニウムなどが特に大きな生産企業である。

電力を必要としない生産方法

アルミニウムは電気分解以外の手法でも製造が可能である。例えばアルミナを2000℃以下で炭素と反応させ、炭化アルミニウムを生成させる。これを2200℃以上の高温部へ移動させ、今度はアルミナと反応させて金属アルミニウムと一酸化炭素に分離させる。^[16]

化学式としては以下のとおりである。

${\rm {2Al_{2}O_{3}+9C\longrightarrow 4Al_{4}C_{3}+6CO}}$

${\rm {Al_{4}C_{3}+Al_{2}O_{3}\longrightarrow 6Al+3CO}}$

２つ目の反応では逆反応が起こらないように過剰な炭素が必要である。生成されたアルミニウムは一部揮発して反応ガス成分に含まれるが、大半はスラグの上層に液体で単離する。

一方、アルミニウムの純度をあげる精錬工程は、電力を消費する三層電解法に代わり電力を使用しない分別結晶法を採用することが可能である。粗製アルミニウム金属を融解し、これを局所的に冷却すると、純度の高いアルミニウムが初晶として晶出する。シリコン単結晶の引き上げ処理と原理的には同じである。この方法によって得られる精製アルミニウムの純度は99.98 - 99.996%であり、三層電解法に迫る純度を得られる。^[17]

用途

1円硬貨。純アルミニウムである

アルミホイル

アルミホイル製のカップ

アルミニウムは金属の中では軽量であるために利用しやすく、また、軟らかくて展性も高いなど加工し易い性質を持っており、さらに表面にできる酸化皮膜のためにイオン化傾向が大きい割には耐食性もあることから、一円硬貨やアルミ箔、缶（アルミ缶）、鍋、外構/エクステリア、建築物の外壁、道路標識、ガソリンエンジンのシリンダーブロック、自転車のフレームやリム、パソコンや家電製品の筐体など、様々な用途に使用されている。ただしたいていはアルミニウム合金としての利用であり、1円硬貨のようなアルミニウム100%のものはむしろ稀な存在である。

有名な合金としてはジュラルミンが挙げられる。ジュラルミンは航空機材料などに用いられているが、金属疲労に弱く、腐食もしやすいという欠点を持つため、航空機などでは十分な点検体制を取ることが求められている。また、鉄道車両でも加工性が良く、軽量であることから、新幹線電車を始めとして特急型電車や通勤型電車などでアルミ車体の採用例も多い。なお、一時期自動車も航空機材料にならうかたちでアルミ化が進んだが、費用対効果を両立させるため、現在はアルミではなくハイテン材料（高張力鋼）の適用が進みつつある。また、炭素繊維の適用も始まっている^[18]。アルミ合金は軍事分野では装甲車輌や戦闘艦にも応用されているが、鉄鋼に比べて火災時の高熱や被弾に弱いため、軽量さを求められる小型の艦船や、自走砲など直接敵と交戦することを想定しない装甲車輌での使用が主流である。

窓枠にもアルミが使われている（アルミサッシ)が、近年は断熱性の問題から樹脂サッシや木製サッシが増えている^[19]。

高圧送電線にもアルミニウム線が使用される。銅に比べ単位体積あたりの電気伝導度は劣るが、密度が低いため断面積を大きく取る（太くする）ことができ、かつ軽いので、単位質量当りの電気伝導度はむしろ銅を上回り、かつ材料費はほぼ拮抗する。このため、支柱（送電鉄塔）のスパンが大きくなる高圧送電線の材料として有利である。

熱伝導性にも優れ、調理器具にアルミニウム合金がよく利用される。熱伝導度についても銅に劣るが、銅よりも安価であるため広く使われる^[5]。

真性半導体であるケイ素に微量のアルミニウムを添加することにより、P型半導体が得られる。

俗に「銀ペン」とも呼ばれる、銀色の塗料には、アルミニウムの微粉末が顔料として加えられている。耐食性があるため、橋梁などの建築物によく使われた。

2014年度において、日本のアルミニウム用途で最も大きかった用途は輸送用機械の製造であり、40.1%を占める。次いでアルミサッシなどの建築用途が12.9%、アルミ缶やアルミ箔などの容器包装用途が10.6%を占め、この3分野が主なアルミニウムの用途であるといえる^[20]。

アルミニウム粉

粉末になったアルミニウムは可燃物であり、粉塵爆発を起こす場合がある。アルミニウム粉は燃焼熱が大きく、燃焼するときにガスを生じないため熱が集積して高温となり、強い白色の光を発する。これを利用して火薬類に発熱剤として添加される。スペースシャトルの固体燃料補助ロケットでも燃料として使用された。アルミニウム粉の性質は表面積の大きさによって左右されるため、等級は粒度ではなく重量当たりの表面積を示す水面拡散面積で表示される場合が多い。粒度で表示されるような粒の大きい物は粒状アルミニウム粉（アトマイズドアルミニウム粉）と呼んで区別することが多い。

スラリー爆薬などの水湿状態の火薬に混ぜるとアルミニウムの表面で以下のような反応が起きて発熱し水素が発生する。このため、アルミニウム粉の火災には水をかける事は禁忌とされている。

${\rm {2Al+6H_{2}O\longrightarrow 2Al(OH)_{3}+3H_{2}}}$

アルミニウム粉末は塗料に混ぜて使う場合もある。また、指紋の検出（主に警察の鑑識課による捜査活動）などでアルミニウムの粉を使用することもある。

アルミニウム粉と酸化鉄(III)との混合物はテルミットと呼ばれ、マグネシウムリボンで着火すると激しく反応し、酸化アルミニウムおよび溶融鉄を生じる。この反応は鉄の溶接にも使われているテルミット反応である。

日本の消防法では、150 μmの網ふるいを通過する量が50%を超えるアルミニウム粉を第2類危険物と定めている。

人体への影響

人体へは摂取しても吸収される量は微量で、ほとんどはそのまま排出される。アルミニウムが体内でどのような役割を果たしているかは、まだよく分かっていない。人工透析に水道水を用いていた時代に、水道水中の微量のアルミニウムを原因とする透析脳症が発生した。そこから「アルミニウムがアルツハイマー病を引き起こす」という主張もなされたが、透析脳症と異なりアルツハイマー病患者の脳のアルミニウム蓄積量は患者以外と変わらず、腎臓が正常に機能しアルミニウムイオンを排出することのできる成人が通常の食生活で経口摂取するアルミニウムによりアルツハイマー病を患うという根拠は乏しいとされている^[21]。

植物への影響

アルミニウムは長石および粘土鉱物などとして普遍的に存在するため、地殻を構成する元素としては酸素、珪素に次いで3番目に多い（クラーク数：7.56%、重量比）。工業的に多彩な用途が見出される一方、酸性土壌中のアルミニウム含量は、植物の成長に影響する重要な要素である。農業や園芸における人工的な栽培環境では中性付近に調整された土壌を用いる場合が多いが、それでも有害なアルミニウムイオン (Al³⁺) が根の伸長成長を阻害する事が知られている。

作用機序

土壌中のアルミニウムは、pH が5.0を下回ると急激にイオン化して溶解度が高まり、pH 3.5ではほぼ完全に溶存体となる。水溶化したアルミニウムイオンが農作物その他の植物に及ぼす害として、以下のようなもの知られている。

肥料として土壌に添加したリン酸と結合し、難溶性の塩を形成する。結果として施肥効率が低下する。
根の成長阻害を引き起こす。アルミニウムイオンは根の細胞の細胞壁〜アポプラスト領域へ結合し、種々の応答反応を引き起こす。応答反応としてはβ-1,3グルカンであるカロースの分泌などが知られるが、成長阻害の具体的なメカニズムは分かっていない。

成長阻害に関する研究は今も進められているが、アルミニウムが活性酸素の発生を促し、脂質の過酸化やミトコンドリアの機能障害を引き起こすとする意見が有力である。

アルミニウム耐性植物

コムギやトウモロコシ、アジサイ、ソバなど一部の植物は、アルミニウム耐性を持つ（あるいは高アルミニウム環境にも適応し得る）事が知られている。アルミニウムを無毒化するメカニズムは様々であるが、一般にカルボン酸（シュウ酸、クエン酸、リンゴ酸など）を中心とした有機酸でアルミニウムイオンをキレートし、水溶性の錯体を形成する機構によると言われている。

アルミニウム耐性に関与する遺伝子は最初にコムギにおいて発見された。耐性関連遺伝子はトウモロコシからも見つかっている。これらの植物においては単一の遺伝子によりアルミニウム耐性が実現されているが、全ての植物のアルミニウム耐性が同一の機構によるわけではないと考えられている。

アルミニウム耐性土壌菌

遺伝子組み換えによりアルミニウム耐性植物を作出する際、その遺伝子源として注目されているものに、土壌性のアルミニウム耐性菌がある。根粒菌として知られる Rhizobium もアルミニウム耐性菌の一種である。強酸性 (pH 3.0) 高アルミニウム条件にて選抜されてくる菌はほとんどが糸状菌であり、従ってアルミニウムの多い土壌ではこれらの生物が優占していると考えられる。以下はアルミニウム耐性菌を含む属の一部である。

Emericellopsis, Paecilomyces, Mortierella（クサレケカビ）, Sporothrix, Penicillium（アオカビ）, Aspergillus（コウジカビ）, Metarhizium

この節の参考文献

アルミニウム耐性土壌菌の選抜金澤晋二郎 PDF
山本洋子 (2002). “アルミニウムによる根伸長阻害の分子機構”. 根の研究 11 (4): 147-54. PDF
Tashiro M, Fujimoto T, Suzuki T, Furihata K, Machinami T, Yoshimura E (2006). “Spectroscopic characterization of 2-isopropylmalic acid-aluminum(III) complex”. J Inorg Biochem 100 (2): 201-5. PMID 16384602
Ma JF, Hiradate S, Nomoto K, Iwashita T, Matsumoto H (1997). “Internal Detoxification Mechanism of Al in Hydrangea (Identification of Al Form in the Leaves)”. Plant Physiol 113 (4): 1033-9. PMID 12223659

化合物

合金についてはアルミニウム合金を参照。

酸化アルミニウム - 通称アルミナ。モース硬度が 9 と高く、研磨剤として利用される。ボーキサイトからアルミニウムを精錬する際には、バイヤー法にてボーキサイトからアルミナを製造し、そのアルミナをホール・エルー法にてアルミニウムに精錬することになる。天然の結晶はコランダムと呼ばれ、古来より宝石として珍重された。コランダムのなかでも特に色の赤いものをルビー、その他の色のついたもの（濃い青が最も価値が高い）をサファイアと呼び、非常に価値の高い宝石として珍重される。
塩化アルミニウム
ミョウバン - 染色剤や防水剤、消火剤、皮なめし剤、沈殿剤など、古来よりさまざまな用途に使用される。
窒化アルミニウム
硫酸アルミニウム
水素化アルミニウム
水酸化アルミニウム
氷晶石 - ホール・エルー法によるアルミニウム精錬の際に必須の鉱石だったが、グリーンランドにあった鉱床の枯渇と代替品としての蛍石の使用の普及によって工業的価値を失った。

歴史

古代エジプトではすでにアルミニウムの化合物であるミョウバンが知られており、染色剤や防水剤、消火剤、皮なめし剤、沈殿剤などとして広く利用されてきた。しかしミョウバンの中に金属が含まれているとは考えられていなかった。それを覆し、ミョウバンの中に金属が含まれていると1782年に初めて推測したのはフランスのアントワーヌ・ラヴォアジエであった。

1807年 - イギリスのハンフリー・デービーは水素気流中で融解アルミナを電気分解する手法でアルミニウムと鉄の合金を得た。鉄はアルミナの不純物によるものであった。合金からアルミナを生成できたため、何らかの未知の元素の存在が確認できたことになる。デービーはアルミニウムの硫酸塩であるミョウバンを表すラテン語の単語 Alumen から、未知の新元素を Alumium と名付けた。
1825年 - デンマーク物理学者エルステッドが、塩化アルミニウムをカリウムアマルガムにより還元し、世界で初めてアルミニウムの単離に成功した^[22]。ただし水銀などの不純物が多かったとされる。カリウムを還元剤としたため生産性は極端に低く、貴金属としての扱いを受けた。
1827年 - ヴェーラーが塩化アルミニウムをカリウムで還元して純粋なアルミニウムを得たため^[23]ヴェーラーをアルミニウムの発見者とすることもある。
1846年 - フランスの科学者ドビーユがエルステッドの手法を改良し、カリウムの代わりにナトリウムを用いる還元法を開発した。生産コストを下げることに成功し、電解法も開発した。
1855年 - ドビーユは粘土から電解法で生産したアルミニウムをパリの万国博覧会に展示した。出品タイトルは「粘土からの銀」であった。展示を見たナポレオン3世はドビーユに援助を始める。目的は甲騎兵の防具を改良するためであった。また、皇帝夫妻専用にアルミ製食器を作らせ、晩餐会では銀製食器を使う来賓の前でこのアルミ食器を自慢して食事をした。（詳細は「ナポレオン3世とアルミニウム製品」も参照）。生産には成功したものの製法はいまだ未熟であったため、当時のアルミニウムは非常に製錬コストが高く高価なものであった。
1886年 - アメリカのチャールズ・マーティン・ホールとフランスのポール・エルーが、アルミナと氷晶石を用いた融解塩電解法をそれぞれ独自に発明した^[24]（ホール・エルー法）。この方法はアルミ精錬法として唯一のものであり、現在に至るまで使用されている。この発明によってアルミニウムの工業的生産が可能になり、アルミニウムは金属として実用化された。
1888年 - オーストリアのカール・ヨーゼフ・バイヤーが、ボーキサイトから高純度のアルミナを効率的に製造する方法を発明した（バイヤー法）。
19世紀後半 - 電気精錬の手法が進歩するが、肝心の発電、送電技術が未熟であり、生産性は依然として低いままであった。
1903年 - ドイツのデュレンにおいて、アルフレート・ヴィルムがジュラルミンを発明する。この発明によってアルミニウムの用途は一気に広がり、主要工業材料としての地位を確立した。
1926年 - ヨーロッパで国際カルテルができて、1928年にカナダも加入。予定存続期間は99年間。アウトサイダーはソ連とイタリア。協力者のアメリカを除いて販売割当が行われた。世界恐慌で1931年以後は厳しい生産制限が行われた。
20世紀中〜後半 - 大規模で効率的な発電所の建設が可能になるとともに、送電システムが確立された。大規模な電気精錬が行えるようになり、大量生産が可能となった。

同位体

詳細は「アルミニウムの同位体」を参照

物質

アルミニウム合金
ルビー（クロム＋アルミニウム）
サファイヤ（鉄・チタン＋アルミニウム）
含アルミニウム泉

アルミ製品

パナール・ディナ - 世界で初めてのオールアルミ合金の本格量産車
ホンダ・NSX - 世界で初めてオールアルミモノコックボディを採用した
国鉄203系電車
国鉄301系電車
A-train - 日立製作所が製造するアルミニウムダブルスキン構造の鉄道車両
アルミ箔
アルミホイール - 自動車用ホイール

脚注

[ヘルプ]

^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
^ http://www.encyclo.co.uk/webster/A/64
^ 『理化学辞典』第5版、岩波書店
^ 『化学大辞典』　共立出版、1993年
^ ^a ^b ^c Geoff Rayner-Canham, Tina Overton　『レイナーキャナム　無機化学（原著第4版）』　西原寛・高木繁・森山広思訳、p.193-195、2009年、東京化学同人、ISBN 978-4-8079-0684-0
^ ^a ^b ^c 西川精一　『新版金属工学入門』　アグネ技術センター、2001年
^ JIKO. 8.応力ひずみ線図材料力学.
^ ^a ^b 亀山直人　『電気化学の理論と応用』　丸善、1955年
^ 「非鉄金属業界大研究」南正明　p88　産学社　2008年8月31日初版第1刷
^ 日軽金、アルミ製錬撤退　国内唯一の拠点を３月末で閉鎖日経新聞 2014年3月14日
^ リサイクルについてアルミ缶リサイクル協会 2015年8月28日閲覧
^ 「商社のとりくみ　金属（アルミ）のリサイクル」日本貿易会 2015年6月19日閲覧
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/aluminum/mcs-2015-alumi.pdf　2014年のデータ　2015年5月27日閲覧
^ 「モザンビークにおけるアルミニウム製錬事業　アルミ事業と地域の発展」三菱商事 2015年6月19日閲覧
^ 「世界のアルミ産業」日本アルミ協会 2015年6月19日閲覧
^ アルミナの炭素熱還元によるアルミニウムの製造方法及び反応装置(ekouhou.net)
^ 高純度アルミニウム製造法(日本軽金属)
^ ついに量産車へ、炭素繊維「鉄並み価格」視野で経済圏拡大日本経済新聞 2014年11月19日
^ 低い断熱性なぜ放置、世界に遅れる「窓」後進国ニッポン日本経済新聞 2014年11月7日
^ 「用途別需要」日本アルミ協会　2015年6月19日閲覧
^ 「アルミニウムと健康」連絡協議会
^ 西川精一　『新版金属工学入門』p344　アグネ技術センター、2001年
^ 西川精一　『新版金属工学入門』p344　アグネ技術センター、2001年
^ 大澤直『金属のおはなし』p113　日本規格協会（原著2006年1月25日）、第1版第1刷。ISBN 4542902757。

外部リンク

（社）日本アルミニウム協会
Alu-Scout
アルミニウムとアルツハイマー病の関連情報 - 「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報（国立健康・栄養研究所）

^ アルミニウムとアルツハイマー病の関連情報国立健康・栄養研究所

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Aluminium (in Commonwealth English) or aluminum (in American English) is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal. Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust (after oxygen and silicon) and its most abundant metal. Aluminium makes up about 8% of the crust by mass, though it is less common in the mantle below. Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.^[7] The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.

Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades and window frames.^{[clarification needed]} The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium.^{[citation needed]}

Despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals.^[8] Because of their abundance, the potential for a biological role is of continuing interest and studies continue.

1 Characteristics
- 1.1 Physical
- 1.2 Chemical
- 1.3 Isotopes
- 1.4 Natural occurrence
2 Production and refinement
- 2.1 Bayer process and Hall-Héroult processes
- 2.2 Aluminium chloride electrolysis process
- 2.3 Aluminium carbothermic process
- 2.4 Recycling
3 Compounds
- 3.1 Oxidation state +3
  - 3.1.1 Halides
  - 3.1.2 Oxide and hydroxides
  - 3.1.3 Carbide, nitride, and related materials
- 3.2 Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides
- 3.3 Oxidation states +1 and +2
  - 3.3.1 Aluminium(I)
  - 3.3.2 Aluminium(II)
- 3.4 Analysis
4 Applications
- 4.1 General use
- 4.2 Aluminium compounds
  - 4.2.1 Alumina
  - 4.2.2 Sulfates
  - 4.2.3 Chlorides
  - 4.2.4 Niche compounds
- 4.3 Aluminium alloys in structural applications
5 History
- 5.1 Hall-Heroult process: availability of cheap aluminium metal
6 Etymology
- 6.1 Different endings
7 Biology
8 Health concerns
- 8.1 Occupational safety
- 8.2 Alzheimer's disease
9 Effect on plants
10 Biodegradation
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links

Characteristics

"Bauxite tailings" storage facility in Stade, Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.

Physical

Aluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile, and malleable metal with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. A fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.^[9] Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.

Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m².^[10]

Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).^[11]

Chemical

Corrosion resistance can be excellent because a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide forms when the bare metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation,^[12] in a process termed passivation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper.^[9] This corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.

In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, and in highly alkaline ones to form aluminates— protective passivation under these conditions is negligible. Primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium.^[13]

However, because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3,000–10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 nm (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.^[14]

Aluminium is oxidized by water at temperatures below 280 °C to produce hydrogen, aluminium hydroxide and heat:

2 Al + 6 H₂O → 2 Al(OH)₃ + 3 H₂

This conversion is of interest for the production of hydrogen. However, commercial application of this fact has challenges in circumventing the passivating oxide layer, which inhibits the reaction, and in storing the energy required to regenerate the aluminium metal.^[15]

Isotopes

Aluminium has many known isotopes, with mass numbers range from 21 to 42; however, only ²⁷Al (stable) and ²⁶Al (radioactive, t_1⁄2 = 7.2×10⁵ years) occur naturally. ²⁷Al has a natural abundance above 99.9%. ²⁶Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes are useful in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of ²⁶Al to ¹⁰Be has been used to study transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 10⁵ to 10⁶ year time scales.^[16] Cosmogenic ²⁶Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial ²⁶Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding drastically reduces ²⁶Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that ²⁶Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of ²⁶Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.^[17]

Natural occurrence

Stable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium, either in large stars or in supernovae.^[18] It is estimated to be the 14th most common element in the Universe, by mass-fraction.^[19] However, among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, aluminium is the third most abundant by mass fraction, after hydrogen and nitrogen.^[19]

In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by mass) metallic element and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).^[20] The Earth's crust has a greater abundance of aluminium than the rest of the planet, primarily in aluminium silicates. In the Earths mantle, which is only 2% aluminium by mass, these aluminium silicate minerals are largely replaced by silica and magnesium oxides. Overall, the Earth is about 1.4% aluminium by mass (eighth in abundance by mass). Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth than in the Solar system and Universe because the more common elements (hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, carbon as hydrocarbon) are volatile at Earth's proximity to the Sun and large quantities of those were lost.

Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.^[21] Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. Chen et al. (2011)^[22] propose the theory that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)₄⁻.^[22]

Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise. Impurities in Al₂O₃, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.

Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlO_x(OH)_3–2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.^[23] Bauxite is mined from large deposits in Australia, Brazil, Guinea, and Jamaica; it is also mined from lesser deposits in China, India, Indonesia, Russia, and Suriname.

Production and refinement

Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron minerals.

Bayer process and Hall-Héroult processes

Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) by the Bayer process.^[8] Relevant chemical equations are:

Al₂O₃ + 2 NaOH → 2 NaAlO₂ + H₂O

2 H₂O + NaAlO₂ → Al(OH)₃ + NaOH

The intermediate, sodium aluminate, with the simplified formula NaAlO₂, is soluble in strongly alkaline water, and the other components of the ore are not. Depending on the quality of the bauxite ore, twice as much waste ("Bauxite tailings") as alumina is generated.

The conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the Hall-Héroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (950 and 980 °C (1,740 and 1,800 °F)) mixture of cryolite (Na₃AlF₆) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium:

Al³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Al

The liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing. Oxygen is produced at the anode:

2 O²⁻ + C → CO₂ + 4 e⁻

The carbon anode is consumed by reaction with oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas, with a small quantity of fluoride gases. In modern smelters, the gas is filtered through alumina to remove fluorine compounds and return aluminium fluoride to the electrolytic cells. The anode this reduction cell must be replaced regularly, since it is consumed in the process. The cathode is also eroded, mainly by electrochemical processes and liquid metal movement induced by intense electrolytic currents. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell must be rebuilt because of cathode wear.

World production trend of aluminium

Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process consumes a lot of energy. The worldwide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). Some smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Minimizing line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kiloamperes; state-of-the-art smelters operate at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.^{[citation needed]}

The Hall-Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.^[8]^[24]

Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the U.S.^[25] Aluminium producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive—such as the United Arab Emirates with its large natural gas supplies,^[26] and Iceland^[27] and Norway^[28] with energy generated from renewable sources. The world's largest smelters of alumina are located in the People's Republic of China, Russia and the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia in Canada.^[25]^[29]^[30]

Aluminium spot price 1987–2012

In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost a one-fifth world share, followed by Russia, Canada, and the US, reports the British Geological Survey.

Over the last 50 years, Australia has become the world's top producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina (before being overtaken by China in 2007).^[29]^[31] Australia produced 77 million tonnes of bauxite in 2013.^[32] The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica, but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.^[33]

Aluminium chloride electrolysis process

The high energy consumption of Hall-Héroult process motivated the development of the electrolytic process based on aluminium chloride. The pilot plant with 6500 tons/year output was started in 1976 by Alcoa. The plant offered two advantages: (i) energy requirements were 40% less than plants using the Hall-Héroult process, and (ii) the more accessible kaolinite (instead of bauxite and cryolite) was used for feedstock. Nonetheless, the pilot plant was shut down. The reasons for failure were the cost of aluminium chloride, general technology maturity problems, and leakage of the trace amounts of extremely toxic polychlorinated biphenyl compounds.^[34]^[35]

Aluminium chloride process can also be used for the co-production of titanium, depending on titanium contents in kaolinite.

Aluminium carbothermic process

The non-electrolytic aluminium carbothermic process of aluminium production would theoretically be cheaper and consume less energy. However, it has been in the experimental phase for decades because the high operating temperature creates difficulties in material technology that have not yet been solved.^[36]^[37] Research continues on lowering the operating temperature.^[38]^[39]

Recycling

Aluminium recycling code

Aluminium is theoretically 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural qualities. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics etc.) is 80 kg (180 lb). Much of this is in more-developed countries (350–500 kg (770–1,100 lb) per capita) rather than less-developed countries (35 kg (77 lb) per capita). Knowing the per capita stocks and their approximate lifespans is important for planning recycling.

Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness.

Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).^[40] An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.^[41] The dross can undergo a further process to extract aluminium.

Europe has achieved high rates of aluminium recycling ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% of construction materials, and 95% of transport vehicles.^[42]

Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties as primary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in 80% of alloy injections. Another important use is extrusion.

White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially.^[43] The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;^[44] contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.^[45]

Compounds

Oxidation state +3

The vast majority of compounds, including all Al-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al³⁺ is six-coordinate or tetracoordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.^[20]

Halides

All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF₃) features six-coordinate Al. The octahedral coordination environment for AlF₃ is related to the compactness of the fluoride ion, six of which can fit around the small Al³⁺ center. AlF₃ sublimes (with cracking) at 1,291 °C (2,356 °F). With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral Al centers. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen, although other methods exist. Acidification of the oxides or hydroxides affords hydrates. In aqueous solution, the halides often form mixtures, generally containing six-coordinate Al centers that feature both halide and aquo ligands. When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as [AlF(H
2O)
5]2+
, AlF
3(H
2O)
3, and [AlF
6]3−
. In the case of chloride, polyaluminium clusters are formed such as [Al₁₃O₄(OH)₂₄(H₂O)₁₂]⁷⁺.

Oxide and hydroxides

Aluminium forms one stable oxide, known by its mineral name corundum. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful.

Carbide, nitride, and related materials

Aluminium carbide (Al₄C₃) is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1,000 °C (1,832 °F). The pale yellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centers. It reacts with water or dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide, Al₂(C₂)₃, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.

Aluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known for aluminium. Unlike the oxides, it features tetrahedral Al centers. It can be made from the elements at 800 °C (1,472 °F). It is air-stable material with a usefully high thermal conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is made similarly; it hydrolyses to give phosphine:

AlP + 3 H₂O → Al(OH)₃ + PH₃

Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides

Structure of trimethylaluminium, a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.

A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR₃ and AlR_1.5Cl_1.5 exist.^[46] These species usually feature tetrahedral Al centers, e.g. "trimethylaluminium" has the formula Al₂(CH₃)₆ (see figure). With large organic groups, triorganoaluminium exist as three-coordinate monomers, such as triisobutylaluminium. Such compounds are widely used in industrial chemistry, despite the fact that they are often highly pyrophoric. Few analogues exist between organoaluminium and organoboron compounds other than large organic groups.

The important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH₄), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride:

4 LiH + AlCl₃ → LiAlH₄ + 3 LiCl

Several useful derivatives of LiAlH₄ are known, e.g. sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate. The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, remains a laboratory curiosity. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH₃)_n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride with the formula (BH₃)₂.

Oxidation states +1 and +2

Although the great majority of aluminium compounds feature Al³⁺ centers, compounds with lower oxidation states are known and sometime of significance as precursors to the Al³⁺ species.

Aluminium(I)

AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the trihalide is heated with aluminium. The composition $AlI$ is unstable at room temperature, converting to triiodide:^[47]

A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, $Al 4 I 4 (NEt 3) 4$ . Also of theoretical interest but only of fleeting existence are Al₂O and Al₂S. Al₂O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al₂O₃, with silicon at 1,800 °C (3,272 °F) in a vacuum.^[47] Such materials quickly disproportionate to the starting materials.

Aluminium(II)

Very simple Al(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion^[48] and in stellar absorption spectra.^[49] More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R₄Al₂ which contain an Al-Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.^[50]

Analysis

The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.

Applications

Etched surface from a high purity (99.9998%) aluminium bar, size 55×37 mm

General use

Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.^[51] Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).^[52] Forecast for 2012 was 42–45 million tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.^[53]

Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.^[54] The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight.^[55]

Household aluminium foil

Aluminium-bodied Austin "A40 Sports" (c. 1951)

Aluminium slabs being transported from a smelter

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:

Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft, etc.) as sheet, tube, and castings.
Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.).
Food and beverage containers, because of its resistance to corrosion.
Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing, etc.).^[56]
A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats and watches.^[57]
Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles.
Outer shells and cases for consumer electronics and photographic equipment.
Electrical transmission lines for power distribution ("creep" and oxidation are not issues in this application as the terminations are usually multi-sided "crimps" which enclose all sides of the conductor with a gas-tight seal).
MKM steel and Alnico magnets.
Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs, and also in wires/cabling.
Heat sinks for transistors, CPUs, and other components in electronic appliances.
Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED lighting.
Light reflective surfaces and paint.
Pyrotechnics, solid rocket fuels, and thermite.
Production of hydrogen gas by reaction with hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide.
In alloy with magnesium to make aircraft bodies and other transportation components.
Cooking utensils, because of its resistant to corrosion and light-weight.
Coins in such countries as France, Italy, Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel, and the former Yugoslavia struck from aluminium or an aluminium-copper alloy.^[58]^[59]
Musical instruments. Some guitar models sport aluminium diamond plates on the surface of the instruments, usually either chrome or black. Kramer Guitars and Travis Bean are both known for having produced guitars with necks made of aluminium, which gives the instrument a very distinctive sound. Aluminum is used to make some guitar resonators and some electric guitar speakers.^[60]

Aluminium is usually alloyed – it is used as pure metal only when corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. The strength of aluminium alloys is abruptly increased with small additions of scandium, zirconium, or hafnium.^[61] A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapor deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapor deposition or other chemical means^[which?] to form optical coatings and mirrors.

Aluminium compounds

Because aluminium is abundant and most of its derivatives exhibit low toxicity, the compounds of aluminium enjoy wide and sometimes large-scale applications.

Alumina

Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) and the associated oxy-hydroxides and trihydroxides are produced or extracted from minerals on a large scale. The great majority of this material is converted to metallic aluminium. In 2013, about 10% of the domestic shipments in the United States were used for other applications.^[62] One major use is to absorb water where it is viewed as a contaminant or impurity. Alumina is used to remove water from hydrocarbons in preparation for subsequent processes that would be poisoned by moisture.

Aluminium oxides are common catalysts for industrial processes; e.g. the Claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines. Many industrial catalysts are "supported" by alumina, meaning that the expensive catalyst material (e.g., platinum) is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina.

Being a very hard material (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive; being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps.

Sulfates

Several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. Aluminium sulfate (Al₂(SO₄)₃·(H₂O)₁₈) is produced on the annual scale of several billions of kilograms. About half of the production is consumed in water treatment. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant, in fire extinguishers, in fireproofing, as a food additive (E number E173), and in leather tanning. Aluminium ammonium sulfate, which is also called ammonium alum, (NH₄)Al(SO₄)₂·12H₂O, is used as a mordant and in leather tanning,^[63] as is aluminium potassium sulfate ([Al(K)](SO₄)₂)·(H₂O)₁₂. The consumption of both alums is declining.

Chlorides

Aluminium chloride (AlCl₃) is used in petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber and polymers. Although it has a similar name, aluminium chlorohydrate has fewer and very different applications, particularly as a colloidal agent in water purification and an antiperspirant. It is an intermediate in the production of aluminium metal.

Niche compounds

Many aluminium compounds have niche applications:

Aluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent.
aluminium borate (Al₂O₃·B₂O₃) and aluminium fluorosilicate (Al₂(SiF₆)₃) are used in the production of glass, ceramics, synthetic gemstones.
Aluminium phosphate (AlPO₄) used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes, and in dental cement.
Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)₃) is used as an antacid, and mordant; it is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing fabrics.
Lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry.
Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and cocatalysts.
Methylaluminoxane is a cocatalyst for Ziegler-Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene.
Aqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris.
In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.

Aluminium alloys in structural applications

Aluminium foam

Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO).

The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.

One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very small cyclic loadings. Engineers must assess applications and design for a fixed and finite life of the structure, rather than infinite life.

Another important property of aluminium alloys is sensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, melts without first glowing red. Manual blow torch operations require additional skill and experience. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, are subject to internal stresses after heat operations such as welding and casting. The lower melting points of aluminium alloys make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Stress can be relieved and controlled during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the stresses.

The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded use in rocketry, even in combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used regeneratively cooled aluminium in some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.

Another alloy of some value is aluminium bronze (Cu-Al alloy).

History

The statue of the Anteros in Piccadilly Circus, London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.

Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1782, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the "base" of (i.e., the metallic element in) alum alumine.^[64] In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed alumium and later aluminum (see etymology section, below).

The metal was first produced in 1825 in an impure form by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.^[65]^[66] Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but after repeating Ørsted's experiments, he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced aluminium.^[66] Wöhler is therefore generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum). Further, Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore. Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846. As described in his 1859 book, aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used.^[67] In the mid-1880s, aluminium metal was exceedingly difficult to produce, which made pure aluminium more valuable than gold.^[68] So celebrated was the metal that bars of aluminium were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle of 1855.^[69] Napoleon III of France is reputed to have held a banquet where the most honored guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others made do with gold.^[70]^[71]

Aluminium was selected as the material to use for the 100 ounces (2.8 kg) capstone of the Washington Monument in 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project (in 1884 about $1 for 10 hours of labor; today, a construction worker in the US working on such a project might earn $25–$35 per hour and therefore around $300 in an equivalent single 10-hour day).^[72] The capstone, which was set in place on 6 December 1884 in an elaborate dedication ceremony, was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time.^[72]

The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England using smelters like the furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.^[73]^[74]^[75]

Hall-Heroult process: availability of cheap aluminium metal

Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Héroult of France independently developed the Hall-Héroult electrolytic process that facilitated large-scale production of metallic aluminium. This process remains in use today.^[76] In 1888, with the financial backing of Alfred E. Hunt, the Pittsburgh Reduction Company started; today it is known as Alcoa. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.^[77]

By 1895, the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building.

With the explosive expansion of the airplane industry during World War I (1914–1917), major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light, strong airframes. They often subsidized factories and the necessary electrical supply systems.^[78]

Many navies have used an aluminium superstructure for their vessels; the 1975 fire aboard USS Belknap that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the Falklands War, led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures.

Aluminium wire was once widely used for domestic electrical wiring in the United States, and a number of fires resulted from creep and corrosion-induced failures at junctions and terminations; additional and preventable factors in the failures have been identified.^[79]^[80] Aluminium is still used in electrical services with specially designed wire termination hardware.

Etymology

The various names all derive from its elemental presence in alum. The word comes into English from Old French, from alumen, a Latin word meaning "bitter salt".^[81]

Two variants of the name are in current use: aluminium (pronunciation: /ˌæljʊˈmɪniəm/) and aluminum (/əˈluːmɪnəm/). There is also an obsolete variant alumium. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990 but, three years later, recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant. The IUPAC periodic table now includes both spellings.^[82] IUPAC internal publications use the two spelling with nearly equal frequency.^[83]

Different endings

Most countries use the ending "-ium" for "aluminium". In the United States and Canada, the ending "-um" predominates.^[20]^[84] The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the Australian Macquarie Dictionary prefers aluminium. In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as "chiefly British".^[85]^[86] The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for this element is alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation is from the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium."^[87]^[88]

Davy settled on aluminum by the time he published his 1812 book Chemical Philosophy: "This substance appears to contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state, though alloys of it with other metalline substances have been procured sufficiently distinct to indicate the probable nature of alumina."^[89] But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, in a review of Davy's book, objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."^[90]

The -ium suffix followed the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy isolated himself). Nevertheless, element names ending in -um were not unknown at the time; for example, platinum (known to Europeans since the 16th century), molybdenum (discovered in 1778), and tantalum (discovered in 1802). The -um suffix is consistent with the universal spelling alumina for the oxide (as opposed to aluminia), as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.^{[citation needed]}

The aluminum spelling is used in the Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal in 1892, Charles Martin Hall used the -um spelling, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all the patents^[76] he filed between 1886 and 1903. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that aluminum became the standard English spelling in North America.^{[citation needed]}

Biology

Schematic of Al absorption by human skin.^[91]

There are five major Al forms absorbed by human body: the free solvated trivalent cation (Al³⁺_(aq)); low-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al⁰_(aq)); high-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (HMW-Al⁰_(aq)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)_n^+/−_(aq)); nano and micro-particulates (Al(L)_n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi-/endothelia through five major routes: (1) paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated endocytosis.^[91]

Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth crust, aluminium has no known function in biology. Aluminium salts are remarkably nontoxic, aluminium sulfate having an LD₅₀ of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 500 grams for an 80 kg (180 lb) person.^[8] The extremely low acute toxicity notwithstanding, the health effects of aluminium are of interest in view of the widespread occurrence of the element in the environment and in commerce.

Health concerns

In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier.^[92] A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as antiperspirants and antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in amounts greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass.^[93] The use of aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, however excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Studies have shown that consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium significantly increases aluminium absorption,^[94] and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseous tissue.^[95] Furthermore, aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory.^[96] The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as a metalloestrogen.

The effects of aluminium in antiperspirants have been examined over the course of decades with little evidence of skin irritation.^[8] Nonetheless, its occurrence in antiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminium lake), and food additives has caused concern.^[97] Although there is little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults,^[98] some studies point to risks associated with increased exposure to the metal.^[97] Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.^[99] It is classified as a non-carcinogen by the US Department of Health and Human Services.^[93]

In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, deferoxamine mesylate may be given to help eliminate it from the body by chelation.^[100]

Occupational safety

Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit of 15 mg/m³ time weighted average (TWA) for total exposure and 5 mg/m³ TWA for respiratory exposure. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit is the same for respiratory exposure but is 10 mg/m³ for total exposure, and 5 mg/m³ for fumes and powder.

Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.^[101]^[102]

Alzheimer's disease

Aluminium has controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease.^[103] According to the Alzheimer's Society, the medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.^[104] Nevertheless, some studies, such as those on the PAQUID cohort,^[105] cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Some brain plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal.^[106] Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent.^[107]^[108]

Effect on plants

Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al³⁺ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112]

Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore, a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.^[113] The concept of "corrected lime potential"^[114] is now used to define the degree of base saturation in soil testing to determine the "lime requirement"^[115]^[116]

Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium, releasing of organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat.^[117] This adaptation is not found in all plants.

Biodegradation

A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum consumes the aluminium in compact discs.^[118]^[119] Other reports all refer back to the 2001 Spanish report and there is no supporting original research. Better documented, the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels (not AV gas), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium.^[120] However, these life forms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium; rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.^[121]

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^ Schmitz, C.; Domagala, J.; Haag, P. (2006). Handbook of Aluminium Recycling. Vulkan-Verlag. p. 27. ISBN 3-8027-2936-6.
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^ "Bauxite and Alumina, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries" (PDF). USGS. February 2014. p. 26. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
^ "Australian Bauxite". Australian Aluminium Council. Archived from the original on 18 July 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
^ http://cecri.csircentral.net/2112/1/21-1985.pdf
^ Aluminum Recycling and Processing for Energy Conservation and Sustainability. By John A. S. Green. p. 197
^ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/resources/aluminum/pdfs/act-arp.pdf
^ http://www.labmet.ntua.gr/ENEXAL/news/02_03_Balomenos.pdf
^ http://www.calsmelt.com/thermical-process.html
^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259496389_Low_Temperature_Aluminium_Carbothermic_Smelting_Process
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^ Tyte, D. C. (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature 202 (4930): 383–384. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0.
^ Merrill, P. W.; Deutsch, A. J.; Keenan, P. C. (1962). "Absorption Spectra of M-Type Mira Variables". The Astrophysical Journal 136: 21. Bibcode:1962ApJ...136...21M. doi:10.1086/147348.
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^ de Morveau (1782) "Mémoire sur les dénominations chimiques, la nécessité d'en perfectionner le système, & les règles pour y parvenir" (Memoir on chemical names, the necessity of improving the system, and rules for attaining it), Observations sur la physique, sur l'histoire naturelle, et sur les arts, …, 19 : 370–382 ; see especially p. 378. From p. 378: "La seconde terre est celle qui sert de base à l'alun: en la nommant argille, il faudroit chercher un autre nom au minéral, qui n'en recèle jamais qu'une portion; il faudroit, suivant notre second principe, substituer le mot argilleux au mot alumineux, pour tous ses composés. Il est plus simple de conserver le dernier, & en tirer un substantif, pour indiquer l'étre primitif. Ainsi, l'on dira que l'alun ou vitriol alumineux a pour base l'alumine, que la Nature nous offre abondamment dans les argilles." (The second earth is what serves as the base in alum: by naming it "clay", one would have to seek another name for the mineral, which never harbors even a part of it; one would have to, following our second principle [for naming chemical compounds], substitute the word "clay-ish" for the word "aluminous" in all its compounds. It is simpler to retain the latter and to draw a noun from it, in order to indicate the primitive entity [i.e., element]. Thus, one will say that alum or aluminous sulfate has as [its] base alumine [i.e., aluminium], which Nature offers us abundantly in clays.)
^ Ørsted (1827) "Fra 31 Maj 1824 til 31 Maj 1825" ([Proceedings of the Society] from 31 May 1824 until 31 May 1825), Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs, Philosphiske og Historiske Afhandlinger (The Royal Danish Scientific Society, Philosophical and Historical Papers), 3 : xxv–xxvi. Ørsted produced aluminium chloride (Chlorleeræret, chloride of clay ore) by passing chlorine over heated clay (Leer), and then reacted it with potassium amalgam (Kaliamalgam), which mixture, after distillation, left a lump of metal (Metalklump) resembling tin (Tinnet), which he called "clay metal" (Leermetal).
^ ^a ^b Wöhler, F. (1827). "Ueber das Aluminium". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 2nd series 11: 146–161.
^ Sainte-Claire Deville, H. E. (1859). De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication. Paris: Mallet-Bachelier.
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^ "Cowles' Aluminium Alloys". The Manufacturer and Builder 18 (1): 13. 1886. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
^ McMillan, W. G. (1891). A Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy. London: Charles Griffin and Company, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. pp. 302–305. Retrieved 26 October 2007.
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^ ^a ^b US patent 400664, Charles Martin Hall, "Process of Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride Salts by Electrolysis", issued 1889-04-02
^ Wallace, D. H. (1977) [1937]. Market Control in the Aluminum Industry (Reprint ed.). Arno Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-405-09786-7.
^ Mats Ingulstad, "'We Want Aluminum, No Excuses': Business-Government Relations in the American Aluminum Industry, 1917–1957," in From Warfare to Welfare: Business-Government Relations in the Aluminium Industry, ed. Mats Ingulstad and Hans Otto Frøland, 33–68. (Oslo: Tapir Academic Press, 2012.)
^ Home Inspection and Building Inspection: The Hazards of Aluminum Wiring
^ Aluminum wiring
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements. iupac.org
^ IUPAC Web site publication search for 'aluminum'.
^ Bremner, John Words on Words: A Dictionary for Writers and Others Who Care about Words, pp. 22–23. ISBN 0-231-04493-3.
^ "Aluminium – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Retrieved 23 July 2013.
^ "aluminium – Definition of aluminium (Webster's New World and American Heritage Dictionary)". Retrieved 23 July 2013.
^ "alumium", Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online Oxford University Press. Accessed 29 October 2006. Citation is listed as "1808 SIR H. DAVY in Phil. Trans. XCVIII. 353". The ellipsis in the quotation is as it appears in the OED citation.
^ Davy, Humphry (1808). "Electro Chemical Researches, on the Decomposition of the Earths; with Observations on the Metals obtained from the alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam procured from Ammonia". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (Royal Society of London.) 98: 353. doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0023. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
^ Davy, Humphry (1812). Elements of Chemical Philosophy. ISBN 0-217-88947-6. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
^ "Elements of Chemical Philosophy By Sir Humphry Davy". Quarterly Review (John Murray) VIII: 72. 1812. ISBN 0-217-88947-6. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
^ ^a ^b Exley, C. (2013). "Human exposure to aluminium". Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 15 (10): 1807. doi:10.1039/C3EM00374D.
^ Banks, W.A.; Kastin, AJ (1989). "Aluminum-induced neurotoxicity: alterations in membrane function at the blood–brain barrier". Neurosci Biobehav Rev 13 (1): 47–53. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(89)80051-X. PMID 2671833.
^ ^a ^b Dolara, Piero (July 21, 2014). "Occurrence, exposure, effects, recommended intake and possible dietary use of selected trace compounds (aluminium, bismuth, cobalt, gold, lithium, nickel, silver)". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Informa Plc.) 65: 911–924. doi:10.3109/09637486.2014.937801. ISSN 1465-3478. PMID 25045935.
^ Slanina, P.; French, W; Ekström, LG; Lööf, L; Slorach, S; Cedergren, A (1986). "Dietary citric acid enhances absorption of aluminum in antacids". Clinical Chemistry (American Association for Clinical Chemistry) 32 (3): 539–541. PMID 3948402.
^ Van Ginkel, MF; Van Der Voet, GB; D'haese, PC; De Broe, ME; De Wolff, FA (1993). "Effect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminum in rat brain and bone". The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine 121 (3): 453–60. PMID 8445293.
^ Darbre, P. D. (2006). "Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast". Journal of Applied Toxicology 26 (3): 191–7. doi:10.1002/jat.1135. PMID 16489580.
^ ^a ^b Ferreira, PC; Piai Kde, A; Takayanagui, AM; Segura-Muñoz, SI (2008). "Aluminum as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease". Revista Latino-americana de enfermagem 16 (1): 151–7. doi:10.1590/S0104-11692008000100023. PMID 18392545.
^ Gitelman, H. J. "Physiology of Aluminum in Man", in Aluminum and Health, CRC Press, 1988, ISBN 0-8247-8026-4, p. 90
^ Yokel RA; Hicks CL; Florence RL (2008). "Aluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese". Food and Chemical Toxicology 46 (6): 2261–6. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004. PMC 2449821. PMID 18436363.
^ Aluminum Toxicity from NYU Langone Medical Center. Last reviewed November 2012 by Igor Puzanov, MD
^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum (pyro powders and welding fumes, as Al)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
^ Ferreira PC; Piai Kde A; Takayanagui AM; Segura-Muñoz SI (2008). "Aluminum as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease". Rev Lat Am Enfermagem 16 (1): 151–7. doi:10.1590/S0104-11692008000100023. PMID 18392545.
^ Aluminium and Alzheimer's disease, The Alzheimer's Society. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
^ Rondeau, V.; Jacqmin-Gadda, H.; Commenges, D.; Helmer, C.; Dartigues, J.-F. (2008). "Aluminum and Silica in Drinking Water and the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease or Cognitive Decline: Findings From 15-Year Follow-up of the PAQUID Cohort". American Journal of Epidemiology 169 (4): 489–96. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn348. PMC 2809081. PMID 19064650.
^ Yumoto, Sakae; Kakimi, Shigeo; Ohsaki, Akihiro; Ishikawa, Akira (2009). "Demonstration of aluminum in amyloid fibers in the cores of senile plaques in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 103 (11): 1579–84. doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2009.07.023. PMID 19744735.
^ "Alzheimer's Disease and Aluminum". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2005. Archived from the original on 3 February 2007.
^ Hopkin, Michael (21 April 2006). "Death of Alzheimer victim linked to aluminium pollution". News@nature. doi:10.1038/news060417-10.
^ Belmonte Pereira, Luciane; Aimed Tabaldi, Luciane; Fabbrin Gonçalves, Jamile; Jucoski, Gladis Oliveira; Pauletto, Mareni Maria; Nardin Weis, Simone; Texeira Nicoloso, Fernando; Brother, Denise; Batista Teixeira Rocha, João; Chitolina Schetinger, Maria Rosa Chitolina (2006). "Effect of aluminum on δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) and the development of cucumber (Cucumis sativus)". Environmental and experimental botany 57 (1–2): 106–115. doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.05.004.
^ Andersson, Maud (1988). "Toxicity and tolerance of aluminium in vascular plants". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 39 (3–4): 439–462. doi:10.1007/BF00279487.
^ Horst, Walter J. (1995). "The role of the apoplast in aluminium toxicity and resistance of higher plants: A review". Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde 158 (5): 419–428. doi:10.1002/jpln.19951580503.
^ Ma, Jian Feng; Ryan, PR; Delhaize, E (2001). "Aluminium tolerance in plants and the complexing role of organic acids". Trends in Plant Science 6 (6): 273–278. doi:10.1016/S1360-1385(01)01961-6. PMID 11378470.
^ Turner, R.C. & Clark J.S. (1966). "Lime potential in acid clay and soil suspensions". Trans. Comm. II & IV Int. Soc. Soil Science: 208–215.
^ "corrected lime potential (formula)". Sis.agr.gc.ca. 27 November 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ Turner, R.C. (1965). "A Study of the Lime Potential". Research Branch, Department Of Agriculture.
^ Applying lime to soils reduces the Aluminum toxicity to plants. "One Hundred Harvests Research Branch Agriculture Canada 1886–1986". Historical series / Agriculture Canada – Série historique / Agriculture Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
^ Magalhaes, J. V.; Garvin, DF; Wang, Y; Sorrells, ME; Klein, PE; Schaffert, RE; Li, L; Kochian, LV (2004). "Comparative Mapping of a Major Aluminum Tolerance Gene in Sorghum and Other Species in the Poaceae". Genetics 167 (4): 1905–14. doi:10.1534/genetics.103.023580. PMC 1471010. PMID 15342528.
^ "Fungus 'eats' CDs". BBC. June 2001.
^ "Fungus eats CD". Nature. 2001.
^ J. E. Sheridan; Jan Nelson; Y. L. Tan¬. "STUDIES ON THE 'KEROSENE FUNGUS' CLADOSPORIUM RESINAE (LINDAU) DE VRIES — PART I. THE PROBLEM OF MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION OF AVIATION FUELS". Tuatara: 29.
^ "Fuel System Contamination & Starvation". Duncan Aviation. 2011.

External links

Aluminium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum
Electrolytic production
World production of primary aluminium, by country
Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF
History of Aluminium – from the website of the International Aluminium Institute
Emedicine – Aluminium
The short film ALUMINUM (1941) is available for free download at the Internet Archive

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 慢性腎臓病におけるアルミニウム毒性 aluminum toxicity in chronic kidney disease
2. Overview of rodenticide poisoning
3. 慢性腎疾患における高リン血症の治療 treatment of hyperphosphatemia in chronic kidney disease
4. 血液透析装置の概要 overview of the hemodialysis apparatus
5. 血液透析に使用される水の混入物質 contaminants in water used for hemodialysis

English Journal

A novel extraction method for β-carotene and other carotenoids in fruit juices using air-assisted, low-density solvent-based liquid-liquid microextraction and solidified floating organic droplets.

Sricharoen P1, Limchoowong N1, Techawongstien S2, Chanthai S3.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2016 Jul 15;203:386-93. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.02.093. Epub 2016 Feb 15.
Green extraction using air-assisted, low-density solvent-based liquid-liquid microextraction and solidified floating organic droplets (AA-LDS-LLME-SFOD) prior to spectrophotometry was successfully applied for quantitation of carotenoids in fruit juices. Under optimal conditions, β-carotene could be
PMID 26948629

Ultrasonic semi-solid coating soldering 6061 aluminum alloys with Sn-Pb-Zn alloys.

Yu XY1, Xing WQ1, Ding M2.
Ultrasonics sonochemistry.Ultrason Sonochem.2016 Jul;31:216-21. doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.01.004. Epub 2016 Jan 6.
In this paper, 6061 aluminum alloys were soldered without a flux by the ultrasonic semi-solid coating soldering at a low temperature. According to the analyses, it could be obtained that the following results. The effect of ultrasound on the coating which promoted processes of metallurgical reaction
PMID 26964943

Cavitation erosion mechanism of titanium alloy radiation rods in aluminum melt.

Dong F1, Li X2, Zhang L2, Ma L3, Li R2.
Ultrasonics sonochemistry.Ultrason Sonochem.2016 Jul;31:150-6. doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2015.12.009. Epub 2015 Dec 11.
Ultrasound radiation rods play a key role in introducing ultrasonic to the grain refinement of large-size cast aluminum ingots (with diameter over 800mm), but the severe cavitation corrosion of radiation rods limit the wide application of ultrasonic in the metallurgy field. In this paper, the cavita
PMID 26964935

Japanese Journal

The Effect of Aluminum on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of ATI 718Plus Alloy

Wang Minqing,Deng Qun,Du Jinhui [他]
Materials transactions 56(5), 635-641, 2015-05
NAID 40020440831

耐久製品用に新しい付加価値を創りだしたバイオプラスチックの新展開 : 難燃性ポリ乳酸複合材の耐薬品,耐光,傷防止等の耐久性や質感の向上 (特集日進月歩の有機材料とその応用技術) -- (バイオプラスチックの動向)

位地正年,曽山誠
自動車技術 69(4), 81-85, 2015-04
NAID 40020424668

高力アルミニウム合金の中空形材の押出ダイスの開発

林沛征,望月雄次
塑性と加工 = Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity : 日本塑性加工学会誌 56(650), 219-224, 2015-03
NAID 40020405694

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「アルミニウム」「aluminum」「Al」
拡張検索	「aluminium phosphate」「aluminium preparation」「aluminium oxide」「aluminium acetotartrate」

「アルミニウム」

Aluminium, ₁₃Al
	Spectral lines of aluminium
General properties
Name, symbol	aluminium, Al
Pronunciation	UK i/ˌæljᵿˈmɪniəm/; AL-ew-MIN-ee-əm; US i/əˈljuːmᵻnəm/; ə-LEW-mi-nəm
Alternative name	aluminum (US)
Appearance	silvery gray metallic
Aluminium in the periodic table
	magnesium ← aluminium → silicon
Atomic number (Z)	13
Group, block	group 13, p-block
Period	period 3
Element category	post-transition metal, sometimes considered a metalloid
Standard atomic weight (±) (Ar)	26.9815385(7)
Electron configuration	[Ne] 3s2 3p1
per shell	2, 8, 3
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Melting point	933.47 K (660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F)
Boiling point	2743 K (2470 °C, 4478 °F)
Density near r.t.	2.70 g/cm3
when liquid, at m.p.	2.375 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	10.71 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	284 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	24.20 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	+3, +2, +1, −1, −2 (an amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 1.61
Ionization energies	1st: 577.5 kJ/mol; 2nd: 1816.7 kJ/mol; 3rd: 2744.8 kJ/mol; (more)
Atomic radius	empirical: 143 pm
Covalent radius	121±4 pm
Van der Waals radius	184 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod	(rolled) 5000 m/s (at r.t.)
Thermal expansion	23.1 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity	237 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity	28.2 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic
Young's modulus	70 GPa
Shear modulus	26 GPa
Bulk modulus	76 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.35
Mohs hardness	2.75
Vickers hardness	160–350 MPa
Brinell hardness	160–550 MPa
CAS Number	7429-90-5
History
Prediction	Antoine Lavoisier (1787)
First isolation	Hans Christian Ørsted (1825)
Named by	Humphry Davy (1807)
Most stable isotopes of aluminium
	view; talk; edit; \| references

外見
	; ; ; アルミニウムのスペクトル線
一般特性
名称, 記号, 番号	アルミニウム, Al, 13
分類	卑金属
族, 周期, ブロック	13, 3, p
原子量	26.9815386(13)
電子配置	[Ne] 3s2 3p1
電子殻	2, 8, 3（画像）
物理特性
相	固体
密度（室温付近）	2.70 g/cm3
融点での液体密度	2.375 g/cm3
融点	933.47 K, 660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F
沸点	2792 K, 2519 °C, 4566 °F
融解熱	10.71 kJ/mol
蒸発熱	294.0 kJ/mol
熱容量	(25 °C) 24.200 J/(mol·K)
蒸気圧
原子特性
酸化数	3, 2, 1; (両性酸化物)
電気陰性度	1.61（ポーリングの値）
イオン化エネルギー; （詳細）	第1： 577.5 kJ/mol
	第2： 1816.7 kJ/mol
	第3： 2744.8 kJ/mol
原子半径	143 pm
共有結合半径	121±4 pm
ファンデルワールス半径	184 pm
その他
結晶構造	面心立方格子構造
磁性	常磁性
電気抵抗率	(20 °C) 28.2 nΩ·m
熱伝導率	(300 K) 237 W/(m·K)
熱膨張率	(25 °C) 23.1 µm/(m·K)
音の伝わる速さ; （微細ロッド）	(r.t.) (rolled) 5,000 m/s
ヤング率	70 GPa
剛性率	26 GPa
体積弾性率	76 GPa
ポアソン比	0.35
モース硬度	2.75
ビッカース硬度	167 MPa
ブリネル硬度	245 MPa
CAS登録番号	7429-90-5
最安定同位体
	詳細はアルミニウムの同位体を参照
	表示

　　[★]

英: aluminum、aluminium、Al
関: 水酸化塩化アルミニウム

臨床関連

透析脳症

「aluminum」

　　[★] アルミニウム

関: Al、aluminium

「Al」

　　[★] アルミニウム, aluminium 　

「aluminium phosphate」

　　[★]

リン酸アルミニウム

関: aluminum phosphate

「aluminium preparation」

　　[★]

アルミニウム製剤

関: aluminum preparation

「aluminium oxide」

　　[★]

酸化アルミニウム

関: aluminum oxide

「aluminium acetotartrate」

　　[★]

アセト酒石酸アルミニウム

[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.

[2] ttp://www.encyclo.co.uk/webster/A/64

[3] 『理化学辞典』第5版、岩波書店

[daijiten-4] 『化学大辞典』　共立出版、1993年

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[18] ついに量産車へ、炭素繊維「鉄並み価格」視野で経済圏拡大日本経済新聞 2014年11月19日

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