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a potent carcinogen from the fungus Aspergillus; can be produced and stored for use as a bioweapon

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/12/08 04:55:06」(JST)

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Chemical structure of aflatoxin B₁

Aflatoxins are poisonous and cancer-causing chemicals that are produced by certain molds (Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus) which grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains. They are regularly found in improperly stored staple commodities such as cassava, chili peppers, corn, cotton seed, millet, peanuts, rice, sesame seeds, sorghum, sunflower seeds, tree nuts, wheat, and a variety of spices. When contaminated food is processed, aflatoxins enter the general food supply where they have been found in both pet and human foods, as well as in feedstocks for agricultural animals. Animals fed contaminated food can pass aflatoxin transformation products into eggs, milk products, and meat.^[1] For example, contaminated poultry feed is suspected in the findings of high percentages of samples of aflatoxin contaminated chicken meat and eggs in Pakistan.^[2]

Children are particularly affected by aflatoxin exposure, which leads to stunted growth, delayed development,^[3] liver damage, and liver cancer. Adults have a higher tolerance to exposure, but are also at risk. No animal species is immune. Aflatoxins are among the most carcinogenic substances known.^[4] After entering the body, aflatoxins may be metabolized by the liver to a reactive epoxide intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful aflatoxin M₁.

Aflatoxins are most commonly ingested, but the most toxic type of aflatoxin, B₁, can permeate through the skin.^[5]

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) action levels for aflatoxin present in food or feed is 20 to 300 ppb.^[6] The FDA has had occasion to declare both human and pet food recalls as a precautionary measure to prevent exposure.

The term "aflatoxin" is derived from the name of one of the molds that produce it, Aspergillus flavus. It was coined around 1960 after its discovery as the source of "Turkey X disease".^[7] Aflatoxins form one of the major groupings of mycotoxins.

Major types and their metabolites

At least 14 different aflatoxins are produced in nature.^[8] Aflatoxin B₁ is considered the most toxic and is produced by both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxin M₁ is present in the fermentation broth of Aspergillus parasiticus, but it and aflatoxin M₂ are also produced when an infected liver metabolizes aflatoxin B₁ and B₂.

Aflatoxin B₁ and B₂, produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus
Aflatoxin G₁ and G₂, produced by some Group II A. flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus^[9]
Aflatoxin M₁, metabolite of aflatoxin B₁ in humans and animals (exposure in ng levels may come from a mother's milk)
Aflatoxin M₂, metabolite of aflatoxin B₂ in milk of cattle fed on contaminated foods^[10]
Aflatoxicol
Aflatoxin Q₁ (AFQ₁), major metabolite of AFB₁ in in vitro liver preparations of other higher vertebrates^[11]

Contamination conditions

Aspergillus fumigatus as seen under an electron microscope

Aflatoxins are produced by both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which are common forms of 'weedy' molds widespread in nature. The presence of those molds does not always indicate that harmful levels of aflatoxin are present, but does indicate a significant risk. The molds can colonize and contaminate food before harvest or during storage, especially following prolonged exposure to a high-humidity environment, or to stressful conditions such as drought.

The native habitat of Aspergillus is in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration, but it invades all types of organic substrates whenever conditions are favorable for its growth. Favorable conditions include high moisture content (at least 7%^{[disputed – discuss]}) and high temperature. Aflatoxins have been isolated from all major cereal crops, and from sources as diverse as peanut butter and cannabis. The staple commodities regularly contaminated with aflatoxins include cassava, chillies, corn, cotton seed, millet, peanuts, rice, sorghum, sunflower seeds, tree nuts, wheat, and a variety of spices intended for human or animal consumption. Aflatoxin transformation products are sometimes found in eggs, milk products, and meat when animals are fed contaminated grains.^[1]

A study conducted in Kenya and Mali found that the predominant practices for drying and storage of maize were inadequate in minimizing exposure to aflatoxins.^[12]

Organic crops which are not treated with fungicides may be more susceptible to contamination with aflatoxins.^[13]

Pathology

No animal species is immune to the acute toxic effects of aflatoxins. Adult humans have a high tolerance for aflatoxin exposure and rarely succumb to acute aflatoxicosis,^[14] but children are particularly affected, and their exposure can lead to stunted growth and delayed development, in addition to all the symptoms mentioned below.^[3]

High-level aflatoxin exposure produces an acute hepatic necrosis, resulting later in cirrhosis or carcinoma of the liver. Acute liver failure is made manifest by bleeding, edema, alteration in digestion, changes to the absorption and/or metabolism of nutrients, and mental changes and/or coma.^{[citation needed]}

Chronic exposure increases the risk of developing liver and gallbladder ^[15] cancer, as aflatoxin metabolites may intercalate into DNA and alkylate the bases through epoxide moiety. This is thought to cause mutations in the p53 gene, an important gene in preventing cell cycle progression when there are DNA mutations, or signaling apoptosis (programmed cell death). These mutations seem to affect some base pair locations more than others, for example, the third base of codon 249 of the p53 gene appears to be more susceptible to aflatoxin-mediated mutations than nearby bases.^[16]

Chronic, subclinical exposure does not lead to symptoms so dramatic as acute aflatoxicosis.

The expression of aflatoxin-related diseases is influenced by factors such as species, age, nutrition, sex, and the possibility of concurrent exposure to other toxins. The main target organ in mammals is the liver, so aflatoxicosis primarily is a hepatic disease. Conditions increasing the likelihood of aflatoxicosis in humans include limited availability of food, environmental conditions that favour mould growth on foodstuffs, and lack of regulatory systems for aflatoxin monitoring and control.^[17]

A regular diet including apiaceous vegetables, such as carrots, parsnips, celery, and parsley may reduce the carcinogenic effects of aflatoxin.^[18]

Aflatoxin B₁ can cause immune suppression, and exposure to it is associated with an increased viral load in HIV positive individuals.^[19]^[20]

There is no specific antidote for aflatoxicosis. Symptomatic and supportive care tailored to the severity of the liver disease may include intravenous fluids with dextrose, active vitamin K, B vitamins, and a restricted, but high-quality protein diet with adequate carbohydrate content.

Detection in humans

There are two principal techniques that have been used most often to detect levels of aflatoxin in humans.

The first method is measuring the AFB₁-guanine adduct in the urine of subjects. The presence of this breakdown product indicates exposure to aflatoxin B₁ during the past 24 hours. This technique measures only recent exposure, however. Due to the half-life of this metabolite, the level of AFB₁-guanine measured may vary from day to day, based on diet, it is not ideal for assessing long-term exposure.

Another technique that has been used is a measurement of the AFB₁-albumin adduct level in the blood serum. This approach provides a more integrated measure of exposure over several weeks or months.

Animals

In dogs, aflatoxin has potential to lead to liver disease. Low levels of aflatoxin exposure require continuous consumption for several weeks to months in order for signs of liver dysfunction to appear.^[21] Some articles have suggested the toxic level in dog food is 100–300 ppb and requires continuous exposure or consumption for a few weeks to months to develop aflatoxicosis.^[22] No information is available to suggest that recovered dogs will later succumb to an aflatoxin-induced disease.

Turkeys are extremely susceptible to aflatoxicosis. Recent studies have revealed that this is due to the efficient cytochrome P450 mediated metabolism of aflatoxin B₁ in the liver of turkeys and deficient glutathione-S-transferase mediated detoxification.^[23]^[24]

Some studies on pregnant hamsters showed a significant relationship between exposure of aflatoxin B₁ (4 mg/kg, single dose) and the appearance of developmental anomalies in their offspring.^[25]

In 2005, Diamond Pet Foods discovered aflatoxin in a product manufactured at their facility in Gaston, South Carolina.^[26]^[27] In 23 states, Diamond voluntarily recalled 19 products formulated with corn and manufactured in the Gaston facility. Testing of more than 2,700 finished product samples conducted by laboratories confirmed that only two date codes of two adult dog formulas with the "Best By" dates of April 3, April 4, April 5, and April 11 had the potential to be toxic.^[28]

List of outbreaks

International sources of commercial peanut butter, cooking oils (e.g. olive, peanut and sesame oil), and cosmetics have been identified as contaminated with aflatoxin.^[29]^[30]^[31] In some instances, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and other analytical methods, revealed a range from 48% to 80% of selected product samples as containing detectable quantities of aflatoxin. In many of these contaminated food products, the aflatoxin exceeded the safe limits of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), or other regulatory agency.^[30]^[31]^[32]

2003 Kenya: acute poisoning, 120 people died.^[33]^[34]
February–March 2013: Romania, Serbia, Croatia imported into western Europe - 2013 aflatoxin contamination.
February 2013: Iowa contamination.^[35]
2014 (ongoing): Nepal and Bangladesh, neonatal exposures, found in umbilical cord blood.^[33]

Notes

^ ^a ^b Fratamico, PM; et al., eds. (2008). Foodborne Pathogens: Microbiology and Molecular Biology. Horizon Scientific Press. ISBN 978-1-898486-52-7.
^ Iqbal, Shahzad Zafar; et al. (2014). "Natural incidence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in chicken meat and eggs". Food Control. 43: 98–103. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.02.046.
^ ^a ^b Abbas, Hamed K. (2005). Aflatoxin and Food Safety. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-2303-1.
^ Hudler, George W. (1998). Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds: The Remarkable Story of the Fungus Kingdom and Its Impact on Human Affairs. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07016-2.
^ Boonen, Jente; Malysheva, Svetlana V.; Taevernier, Lien; Diana Di Mavungu, José; De Saeger, Sarah; De Spiegeleer, Bart (2012). "Human skin penetration of selected model mycotoxins". Toxicology. 301 (1–3): 21–32. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2012.06.012. PMID 22749975.
^ "Guidance for Industry: Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed". Food and Drug Administration. August 2000. Retrieved March 10, 2013.
^ Wannop, C. C. (March 1961). "The Histopathology of Turkey "X" Disease in Great Britain". Avian Diseases. 5 (4): 371–381. doi:10.2307/1587768. JSTOR 1587768.
^ Boutrif, E. (1998). "Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios". Food, nutrition and agriculture. 21.
^ Geiser, David M; Dorner, Joe W; Horn, Bruce W; Taylor, John W (2000-12-01). "The Phylogenetics of Mycotoxin and Sclerotium Production in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus oryzae". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 31 (3): 169–179. doi:10.1006/fgbi.2000.1215.
^ Aflatoxin M2 product page from Fermentek
^ Smith, John E.; Sivewright-Henderson, Rachel (1991). Mycotoxins and animal foods. CRC Press. p. 614. ISBN 978-0-8493-4904-1.
^ No chance for aflatoxins Archived October 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Rural 21, the International Journal for Rural Development, 3 April 2013. -- The Aflacontrol project was conducted by IFPRI with scientists from CIMMYT, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Directorate of Groundnut Research and other organizations. It sought to provide evidence of the cost-effectiveness of aflatoxin risk-reduction strategies along maize and groundnut value chains in Africa, and to understand what prevented adoption of these control strategies.
^ Halil Tosun; Recep Arslan (2013). "Determination of Aflatoxin B1 Levels in Organic Spices and Herbs". ScientificWorldJournal. 2013: 874093. doi:10.1155/2013/874093. PMC 3677655. PMID 23766719.
^ Williams JH, Phillips TD, Jolly PE, Stiles JK, Jolly CM, Aggarwal D (November 2004). "Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 (5): 1106–22. PMID 15531656.
^ Nogueira L, Foerster C, Groopman J, Egner P, Koshiol J, Ferreccio C (2015-05-26). "ASsociation of aflatoxin with gallbladder cancer in chile". JAMA. 313 (20): 2075–2077. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.4559. ISSN 0098-7484.
^ Aguilar F, Hussain SP, Cerutti P (September 1993). "Aflatoxin B1 induces the transversion of G→T in codon 249 of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in human hepatocytes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (18): 8586–90. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.18.8586. PMC 47402. PMID 8397412.
^ Machida M, Gomi K, eds. (2010). Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-53-0.
^ Peterson S, Lampe JW, Bammler TK, Gross-Steinmeyer K, Eaton DL (September 2006). "Apiaceous vegetable constituents inhibit human cytochrome P-450 1A2 (hCYP1A2) activity and hCYP1A2-mediated mutagenicity of aflatoxin B1". Food Chem. Toxicol. 44 (9): 1474–84. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.04.010. PMID 16762476.
^ Jolly, P.E.; Inusah, S.; Lu, B.; Ellis, W.O.; Nyarko, A.; Phillips, T.D.; Williams, J.H. (2013). "Association between high aflatoxin B₁ levels and high viral load in HIV-positive people". World Mycotoxin Journal. 6 (3): 255–261. doi:10.3920/WMJ2013.1585.
^ "Common food fungus can accelerate onset of AIDS". digitaljournal.com. September 1, 2013.
^ Bingham AK, Phillips TD, Bauer JE (March 2003). "Potential for dietary protection against the effects of aflatoxins in animals". J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 222 (5): 591–6. doi:10.2460/javma.2003.222.591. PMID 12619837.
^ Bastianello SS, Nesbit JW, Williams MC, Lange AL (December 1987). "Pathological findings in a natural outbreak of aflatoxicosis in dogs". Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 54 (4): 635–40. PMID 3444619.
^ Rawal S, Yip SS, Coulombe RA Jr (August 2010). "Cloning, expression and functional characterization of cytochrome P450 3A37 from turkey liver with high aflatoxin B1 epoxidation activity". Chem. Res. Toxicol. 23 (8): 1322–9. doi:10.1021/tx1000267. PMID 20707407.
^ Rawal S, Coulombe RA Jr (August 2011). "Metabolism of aflatoxin B1 in turkey liver microsomes: the relative roles of cytochromes P450 1A5 and 3A37". Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 254 (3): 349–54. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2011.05.010. PMID 21616088.
^ Goldblatt, Leo (2012-12-02). Aflatoxin: Scientific Background, Control, and Implications. ISBN 9780323148498.
^ FDA Inspection Report-Diamond Gaston SC Plant 12/21/2005-1/19/2006.
^ 2005 Recall, FDA
^ AKC Standard Article Contaminated Diamond Pet Food Products and 'Best By' Dates Narrowed Akcstandard.com Archived July 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Bao L; Trucksess MW; White KD. (2010). "Determination of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 in olive oil, peanut oil, and sesame oil". Journal of AOAC International. 93 (3): 936–42. PMID 20629398.
^ ^a ^b Li, Feng-Qin; Li, Yu-Wei; Wang, Ye-Ru; Luo, Xue-Yun (13 May 2009). "Natural Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Chinese Peanut Butter and Sesame Paste". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (9): 3519–24. doi:10.1021/jf804055n. PMID 19338351.
^ ^a ^b Mahoney, Noreen; Russell J. Molyneux (14 April 2010). "A Rapid Analytical Method for Determination of Aflatoxins in Plant-Derived Dietary Supplement and Cosmetic Oils". J Agric Food Chem. 58 (7): 4065–70. doi:10.1021/jf9039028. PMC 2858461. PMID 20235534.
^ Leong, Y. -H.; Ismail, N.; Latiff, A. A.; Manaf, N. A.; Rosma, A. (1 January 2011). "Determination of aflatoxins in commercial nuts and nut products using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry". World Mycotoxin Journal. 4 (2): 119–127. doi:10.3920/WMJ2010.1229.
^ ^a ^b "Aflatoxin threat in Nepal, Bangladesh". SciDev.Net South Asia. 2014-12-17. Retrieved 2016-10-17.
^ "Eastern and Southern Africa 2011 Highlights" (PDF). ICRISAT. 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
^ "Dog food recall underscores toxic danger in drought-hit U.S. corn". Reuters. February 25, 2013.

External links

Detailed listing and information on all Aspergillus mycotoxins
Aflatoxin, ICRISAT
Aspergillusflavus.org
Diamond Pet Food Recall

UpToDate Contents

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1. 肝細胞癌の疫学と病因の関連 epidemiology and etiologic associations of hepatocellular carcinoma
2. ヒトの疾患における真菌（カビ）の役割 the role of fungi molds in human disease
3. 薬と肝臓：薬物性肝障害のパターン drugs and the liver patterns of drug induced liver injury
4. 過敏性肺臓炎（外因性アレルギー性肺胞炎）の診断 diagnosis of hypersensitivity pneumonitis extrinsic allergic alveolitis
5. 有機食品と小児 organic foods and children

English Journal

Differences in the hydroxylation pattern of flavonoids alter their chemoprotective effect against direct- and indirect-acting mutagens.

Resende FA1, da Silva Almeida CP2, Vilegas W3, Varanda EA2.Author information 1UNESP-São Paulo State University, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Araraquara, Department of Biological Sciences, CEP 14801-902 Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil. Electronic address: flaviabiomed@yahoo.com.br.2UNESP-São Paulo State University, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Araraquara, Department of Biological Sciences, CEP 14801-902 Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.3UNESP-São Paulo State University, Experimental Campus of the Paulista Coast, CEP 11330-900 São Vicente, São Paulo, Brazil.AbstractThe antimutagenicity of ten flavonoids, differing in their hydroxylation patterns against direct-acting and indirect-acting mutagens, namely 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine, sodium azide, mitomycin C, benzo[a]pyrene, aflatoxin B1 and 2-aminofluorene, were compared with the aim of investigating how the hydroxyl groups in their structures govern the biological activity of flavonoids, by the Ames test, with Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98, TA100 and TA102. The flavonoids tested were: quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, fisetin, chrysin, galangin, flavone, 3-hydroxyflavone, 5-hydroxyflavone and 7-hydroxyflavone. In these tests, all compounds were shown to be antimutagenic in more than one strain and various mechanisms of action were demonstrated. The results suggested that the number and position of hydroxyl groups may increase or decrease the protective effect, depending on the type and concentration of flavonoids and mutagen used. These studies contribute to clarifying the mechanisms by which these flavonoids act in protecting DNA from damage. This is required before they can be widely used.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2014 Jul 15;155:251-5. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.071. Epub 2014 Jan 30.
The antimutagenicity of ten flavonoids, differing in their hydroxylation patterns against direct-acting and indirect-acting mutagens, namely 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine, sodium azide, mitomycin C, benzo[a]pyrene, aflatoxin B1 and 2-aminofluorene, were compared with the aim of investigating how the hy
PMID 24594182

Development of an ultrasensitive aptasensor for the detection of aflatoxin B1.

Guo X1, Wen F2, Zheng N3, Luo Q4, Wang H2, Wang H2, Li S2, Wang J5.Author information 1Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; College of Animal Science and Technology, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumchi 830000, PR China; Ministry of Agriculture-Milk and Dairy Product Inspection Center (Beijing), Beijing 100193, PR China.2Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; Ministry of Agriculture-Milk and Dairy Product Inspection Center (Beijing), Beijing 100193, PR China.3Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; Ministry of Agriculture-Milk and Dairy Product Inspection Center (Beijing), Beijing 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China. Electronic address: wangjiaqinmqc@126.com.4College of Animal Science and Technology, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumchi 830000, PR China.5Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; Ministry of Agriculture-Milk and Dairy Product Inspection Center (Beijing), Beijing 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China.AbstractContamination of feed and food by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), one of the most toxic of the mycotoxins, is a global concern. To prevent food safety scares, and avoid subsequent economic losses due to the recall of contaminated items, methods for the rapid, sensitive and specific detection of AFB1 at trace levels are much in demand. In this work, a simple, ultrasensitive, and reliable aptasensor is described for the detection of AFB1. An AFB1 aptamer was used as a molecular recognition probe, while its complementary DNA played a role as a signal generator for amplification by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Under optimal conditions, a wide linear detection range (5.0×10(-5) to 5.0ngmL(-1)) was achieved, with a high sensitivity (limit of detection (LOD)=25fgmL(-1)). In addition, the proposed aptasensor exhibited excellent specificity for AFB1 compared with eight other mycotoxins, with no obvious Ct value change. This aptasensor can also be used in quantifying AFB1 levels in Chinese wildrye hay samples and infant rice cereal samples, demonstrating satisfactory recoveries in the range of 88-127% and 94-119%, respectively. This detection technique has a significant potential for high-throughput, quantitative determination of mycotoxin levels in a large range of feeds and foods.
Biosensors & bioelectronics.Biosens Bioelectron.2014 Jun 15;56:340-4. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.01.045. Epub 2014 Feb 2.
Contamination of feed and food by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), one of the most toxic of the mycotoxins, is a global concern. To prevent food safety scares, and avoid subsequent economic losses due to the recall of contaminated items, methods for the rapid, sensitive and specific detection of AFB1 at trace l
PMID 24549114

A homogeneous immunosensor for AFB1 detection based on FRET between different-sized quantum dots.

Xu W1, Xiong Y2, Lai W3, Xu Y4, Li C5, Xie M3.Author information 1State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China; Jiangxi-OAI Joint Research Institute, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China.2State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China; Jiangxi-OAI Joint Research Institute, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China. Electronic address: yhxiongchen@163.com.3State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China.4State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China; Jiangxi-OAI Joint Research Institute, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, PR China. Electronic address: xuyang1951@163.com.5Faculty of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China; Institute for Clean Energy & Advanced Materials (ICEAM), Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China.AbstractMycotoxins are fatal threats in food safety due to their strong carcinogenesis and toxicity, thus requiring highly sensitive detections. Herein, different-sized quantum dots (QDs) were used to construct a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) based immunosensor for sensitive detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in rice grains. To avoid irregular aggregation between two kinds of QDs, monovalent monoclonal antibody (mAb)-labeled red QDs (~0.84anti-AFB1 mAbs per QD) and multivalent hapten-labeled green QDs (~6.8AFB1 per QD) were designed as acceptor and donor, respectively. The anti-AFB1 mAbs and AFB1 interactions promoted one or more acceptors bound with a multivalent AFB1-labeled donor, resulting in energy transfer from the green QDs to the red QDs. Various parameters that influence the immunoassay including reactant ratio of donor to acceptor, buffer pH value, buffer ionic strength and immunoreaction time were systematically investigated and optimized. With optimal conditions, the obtained energy transfer efficiency is proportional to the logarithm of AFB1 concentration in a range over 0.19-16pM (0.06-5ng/mL), while offering a limit of detection of 0.13pM (0.04ng/mL) in rice extracts. The recovery rates of the intra-assay for spiked samples at AFB1 concentrations of 0.1, 1.0, and 5.0ng/mL were 83.27%±3.27%, 97.36%±4.55% and 83.04%±4.94%, respectively, and those for the inter-assay were 81.28%±6.11%, 95.97%±7.07%, and 82.78%±5.99%, respectively. Statistical analysis using t-test had no significant difference between the proposed FRET-based immunoassay and the commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit.
Biosensors & bioelectronics.Biosens Bioelectron.2014 Jun 15;56:144-50. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.01.007. Epub 2014 Jan 18.
Mycotoxins are fatal threats in food safety due to their strong carcinogenesis and toxicity, thus requiring highly sensitive detections. Herein, different-sized quantum dots (QDs) were used to construct a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) based immunosensor for sensitive detection of aflatox
PMID 24487101

Japanese Journal

Determination of multiple mycotoxins levels in poultry feeds from Cameroon

Abia Wilfred Angie,Simo Grace Nella,Warth Benedikt,Sulyok Michael,Krska Rudolf,Tchana Angele,Moundipa Paul Fewou
Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research 61(Supplement), S33-S39, 2013-02-00
… Aflatoxin B1 mean level of 40 μg kg－1 exceeded the worldwidepermitted limit for aflatoxins in feed and generally inversely proportional to weight gain inchicken. …
NAID 120005228432

Cancer Risk at Ultra-low Dose : Lessons Learned from 40,000-animal Cancer Dose-response Studies

Bailey George,Williams David,Orner Gayle [他],HENDRICKS Jerry,PEREIRA Cliff
Genes and environment : the official journal of the Japanese Environmental Mutagen Society 34(4), 157-164, 2012-11-20
NAID 10031125864

医食住のマイコトキシン(8)マイコトキシンの分析法(1)食品分野 : 7-2)総アフラトキシンII〔IACカラム〕

谷口賢
防菌防黴 = Journal of antibacterial and antifungal agents 40(9), 579-585, 2012-09-10
NAID 10031069988

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元

「アフラトキシン」

　　[★]

英: aflatoxin
関: カビ毒、アスペルギルス属、Aspergillus flavus、肝細胞癌

[Fratamicopm-1] Fratamico, PM; et al., eds. (2008). Foodborne Pathogens: Microbiology and Molecular Biology. Horizon Scientific Press. ISBN 978-1-898486-52-7.

[Iqbal-2] Iqbal, Shahzad Zafar; et al. (2014). "Natural incidence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in chicken meat and eggs". Food Control. 43: 98–103. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.02.046.

[hamed2005-3] Abbas, Hamed K. (2005). Aflatoxin and Food Safety. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-2303-1.

[hudler-4] Hudler, George W. (1998). Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds: The Remarkable Story of the Fungus Kingdom and Its Impact on Human Affairs. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07016-2.

[boonen-5] Boonen, Jente; Malysheva, Svetlana V.; Taevernier, Lien; Diana Di Mavungu, José; De Saeger, Sarah; De Spiegeleer, Bart (2012). "Human skin penetration of selected model mycotoxins". Toxicology. 301 (1–3): 21–32. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2012.06.012. PMID 22749975.

[fda2000-6] "Guidance for Industry: Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed". Food and Drug Administration. August 2000. Retrieved March 10, 2013.

[wannop-7] Wannop, C. C. (March 1961). "The Histopathology of Turkey "X" Disease in Great Britain". Avian Diseases. 5 (4): 371–381. doi:10.2307/1587768. JSTOR 1587768.

[boutrif-8] Boutrif, E. (1998). "Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios". Food, nutrition and agriculture. 21.

[9] Geiser, David M; Dorner, Joe W; Horn, Bruce W; Taylor, John W (2000-12-01). "The Phylogenetics of Mycotoxin and Sclerotium Production in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus oryzae". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 31 (3): 169–179. doi:10.1006/fgbi.2000.1215.

[fermetek-10] Aflatoxin M2 product page from Fermentek

[smith-11] Smith, John E.; Sivewright-Henderson, Rachel (1991). Mycotoxins and animal foods. CRC Press. p. 614. ISBN 978-0-8493-4904-1.

[aflacontrol-12] No chance for aflatoxins Archived October 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Rural 21, the International Journal for Rural Development, 3 April 2013. -- The Aflacontrol project was conducted by IFPRI with scientists from CIMMYT, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Directorate of Groundnut Research and other organizations. It sought to provide evidence of the cost-effectiveness of aflatoxin risk-reduction strategies along maize and groundnut value chains in Africa, and to understand what prevented adoption of these control strategies.

[tosun-13] Halil Tosun; Recep Arslan (2013). "Determination of Aflatoxin B1 Levels in Organic Spices and Herbs". ScientificWorldJournal. 2013: 874093. doi:10.1155/2013/874093. PMC 3677655. PMID 23766719.

[williams-14] Williams JH, Phillips TD, Jolly PE, Stiles JK, Jolly CM, Aggarwal D (November 2004). "Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 (5): 1106–22. PMID 15531656.

[15] Nogueira L, Foerster C, Groopman J, Egner P, Koshiol J, Ferreccio C (2015-05-26). "ASsociation of aflatoxin with gallbladder cancer in chile". JAMA. 313 (20): 2075–2077. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.4559. ISSN 0098-7484.

[16] Aguilar F, Hussain SP, Cerutti P (September 1993). "Aflatoxin B1 induces the transversion of G→T in codon 249 of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in human hepatocytes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (18): 8586–90. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.18.8586. PMC 47402. PMID 8397412.

[MachidaMGomiK-17] Machida M, Gomi K, eds. (2010). Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-53-0.

[petersen-18] Peterson S, Lampe JW, Bammler TK, Gross-Steinmeyer K, Eaton DL (September 2006). "Apiaceous vegetable constituents inhibit human cytochrome P-450 1A2 (hCYP1A2) activity and hCYP1A2-mediated mutagenicity of aflatoxin B1". Food Chem. Toxicol. 44 (9): 1474–84. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.04.010. PMID 16762476.

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[27] 2005 Recall, FDA

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v t e Food safety

Adulterants, food contaminants	3-MCPD Aldicarb Cyanide Formaldehyde Lead poisoning Melamine Mercury in fish Sudan I

Flavorings	Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Salt Sugar High fructose corn syrup

Microorganisms	Botulism Campylobacter jejuni Clostridium perfringens Escherichia coli O104:H4 Escherichia coli O157:H7 Hepatitis A Hepatitis E Listeria Norovirus Rotavirus Salmonella

Parasitic infections through food	Anisakiasis Amoebiasis/Amoebic dysentery Cryptosporidiosis Cyclosporiasis Diphyllobothriasis Enterobiasis Fascioliasis Fasciolopsiasis Giardiasis Gnathostomiasis Paragonimiasis Toxoplasmosis Trichinosis Trichuriasis

Pesticides	Chlorpyrifos DDT Lindane Malathion Methamidophos

Preservatives	Benzoic acid Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) Sodium benzoate

Sugar substitutes	Acesulfame potassium Aspartame Saccharin Sodium cyclamate Sorbitol Sucralose

Toxins, poisons, environment pollution	Aflatoxin Arsenic contamination of groundwater Benzene in soft drinks Bisphenol A Mycotoxins Shellfish poisoning dioxin Dieldrin Nonylphenol Diethylstilbestrol

Food contamination incidents	Devon colic 1858 Bradford sweets poisoning 1989 Chilean grape scare 1993 Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak 1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak 1999 Sun Orchard salmonellosis outbreak 2005 Indonesia food scare 2006 North American E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks 2007 Vietnam food scare 2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak 2008 Chinese milk scandal 2008 Irish pork crisis 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak 2011 Germany E. coli O104:H4 outbreak 2011 Taiwan food scandal 2011 United States listeriosis outbreak Food safety incidents in China Foodborne illness outbreaks death toll United States ICA meat repackaging controversy Minamata disease StarLink corn recall Toxic oil syndrome 2013 meat adulteration scandal 2013 aflatoxin contamination 2013 Taiwan food scandal 2014 Taiwan food scandal 2015 United States E. coli outbreak

Regulation, standards, watchdogs	Acceptable daily intake E number Food labeling regulations Food libel laws International Food Safety Network ISO 22000 Quality Assurance International

Institutions	International Food Safety Network List of food safety organisations Institute for Food Safety and Health Ministry of Food and Drug Safety Centre for Food Safety European Food Safety Authority

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aflatoxin