OSCE

• 客観的臨床能力試験、オスキー

関

objective structured clinical examination

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/12/11 19:04:45」(JST)

wiki ja

[Wiki ja表示]

OSCE（オスキー、Objective Structured Clinical Examination）とは、客観的臨床能力試験のこと。医学部、歯学部、薬学部6年制課程の学生が臨床実習に上がる前に、この試験とCBTの２つに合格することが臨床実習に進むための条件となる。

概要

OSCEとは、医学部、歯学部、6年制薬学部の学生が臨床実習を行う臨床能力を身につけているかを試す実技試験である。1975年に英国で提唱されて以来、臨床能力を客観的に評価する優れた方法としてヨーロッパと北米を中心に普及。現在は世界数十ヶ国で導入されている。日本では1994年川崎医科大学が初めて導入し、2001年より医学部歯学部においてOSCEトライアルが開始され、2005年12月より正式に実施された。薬学部においては、6年制薬学部の学生が初めて5年次に進級する前の2010年に初めて実施された。医学部のOSCEは医療面接、胸部診察、呼吸音聴診、神経診察、救急、頭頚部診察、バイタルサイン等、歯学部のOSCEは、医療面接、口腔内診査、診断、テンポラリー・クラウンの作成、バイタルサイン等、薬学部のOSCEは患者・来局者接遇、各種薬剤の調製、無菌操作等が課題として出される。

脚注

関連項目

• 医学部
• 歯学部
• 薬学部
• Computer Based Testing

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

"OSCE" redirects here. For other uses, see OSCE (disambiguation).

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
OSCE participating states   Partners for Co-operation
Secretariat		Vienna, Austria
Membership		57 participating states, 11 Partners for Co-operation
Leaders
-	Secretary General	Lamberto Zannier
-	Chairman-in-Office	Leonid Kozhara
-	Officer for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights	Janez Lenarčič
-	Representative on Freedom of the Media	Dunja Mijatović
-	High Commissioner on National Minorities	Astrid Thors
Establishment
-	As the CSCEa	July 1973
-	Helsinki Accords	30 July – 1 August 1975
-	Paris Charter	21 November 1990
-	Renamed OSCE	1 January 1995
Area
-	Total	50,119,801 km2 19,351,363 sq mi
Population
-	2010 estimate	1,229,503,230 (2nd)
-	Density	24.53/km2 63.5/sq mi
Website www.osce.org
a.	Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe.

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization. It has its origins in the 1975 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) held in Helsinki, Finland. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control and the promotion of human rights, freedom of the press and fair elections. It has 550 headquarters staff and about 2300 field staff.

The OSCE is concerned with early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. Its 57 participating states are located in Europe, Asia and North America and cover most of the land area of the Northern Hemisphere. It was created during the Cold War era as an East-West forum.

History and legal status

Helmut Schmidt, Erich Honecker, Gerald Ford and Bruno Kreisky at the 1975 CSCE summit in Helsinki.

The Organization has its roots in the 1973 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). Talks had been mooted about a European security grouping since the 1950s but the Cold War prevented any substantial progress until the talks at Dipoli in Helsinki began in November 1972. These talks were held at the suggestion of the Soviet Union which wished to use the talks to maintain its control over the communist countries in Eastern Europe, and President of Finland Urho Kekkonen hosted them in order to bolster his policy of neutrality. Western Europe, however, saw these talks as a way to reduce the tension in the region, furthering economic cooperation and obtaining humanitarian improvements for the populations of the Communist bloc.

The recommendations of the talks, in the form of "The Blue Book",^{[citation needed]} gave the practical foundations for a three-stage conference called the "Helsinki process".^{[citation needed]} The CSCE opened in Helsinki on 3 July 1973 with 35 states sending representatives. Stage I only took five days to agree to follow the Blue Book. Stage II was the main working phase and was conducted in Geneva from 18 September 1973 until 21 July 1975. The result of Stage II was the Helsinki Final Act which was signed by the 35 participating States during Stage III, which took place in Finlandia Hall from 30 July – 1 August 1975. It was opened by Holy See’s diplomat Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, who was chairman of the conference.

The concepts of improving relations and implementing the act were developed over a series of follow-up meeting, with major gatherings in Belgrade (4 October 1977 – 8 March 1978), Madrid (11 November 1980 – 9 September 1983) and Vienna (4 November 1986 – 19 January 1989).

A unique aspect of the OSCE is the non-binding status of its constitutive charter. Rather than being a formal treaty ratified by national legislatures, the OSCE Final Act represents a political commitment by the heads of government of all signatories to build security and cooperation in Europe on the basis of its provisions. This allows the OSCE to remain a flexible process for the evolution of improved cooperation which avoids disputes and/or sanctions over implementation. By agreeing these commitments, signatories for the first time accepted that treatment of citizens within their borders was also a matter of legitimate international concern. This open process of the OSCE is often given credit for helping build democracy in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, thus leading to the end of the Cold War. Unlike most international intergovernmental organizations, however, the OSCE is deprived of international legal personality on account of the lack of legal effect of its charter. As a result, its headquarters host, Austria, had to confer legal personality on the organization in order to be able to sign a legal agreement regarding its presence in Vienna.

The collapse of the Soviet Union required a change of role for the CSCE. The Charter of Paris for a New Europe, signed on 21 November 1990, marked the beginning of this change. With the changes capped by the renaming of the CSCE to the OSCE on 1 January 1995, accordingly to the results of the conference held in Budapest, in 1994. The OSCE now had a formal secretariat, Senior Council, Parliamentary Assembly, Conflict Prevention Centre, and Office for Free Elections (later becoming the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights).

In December 1996, the "Lisbon Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the Twenty-First Century" affirmed the universal and indivisible nature of security on the European continent.

In Istanbul on 19 November 1999, the OSCE ended a two-day summit by calling for a political settlement in Chechnya and adopting a Charter for European Security. According to then Minister of Foreign Affairs Igor Ivanov, this summit marked a turning point in Russian perception of the OSCE, from an organization that expressed Europe's collective will, to an organization that serves as a Western tool for "forced democratization."

After a group of thirteen Democratic United States senators petitioned Secretary of State Colin Powell to have foreign election monitors oversee the 2004 presidential election, the State Department acquiesced, and President George W. Bush invited the OSCE to do so.

Languages

The six official languages of the OSCE are English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, and Russian.

Participating States

OSCE signatories as of 2006

  signed Helsinki Final Act and Paris Charter

  signed Helsinki Final Act only

  non-signatory

  partner for cooperation

State	Admission	Signed the Helsinki Final Act	Signed the Charter of Paris
Albania	19 June 1991	16 September 1991	17 September 1991
Andorra	25 April 1996	10 November 1999	17 February 1998
Armenia	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	17 April 1992
Austria	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Azerbaijan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	20 December 1993
Belarus	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	8 April 1993
Belgium	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Bosnia and Herzegovina	30 April 1992	8 July 1992
Bulgaria	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Canada	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Croatia	24 March 1992	8 July 1992
Cyprus	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Czech Republic	1 January 1993
Denmark	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Estonia	10 September 1991	14 October 1991	6 December 1991
Finland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
France	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Georgia	24 March 1992	8 July 1992	21 January 1994
Germany	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Greece	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Hungary	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Iceland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Ireland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Italy	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Kazakhstan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	23 September 1992
Kyrgyzstan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	3 June 1994
Latvia	10 September 1991	14 October 1991	6 December 1991
Liechtenstein	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Lithuania	10 September 1991	14 October 1991	6 December 1991
Luxembourg	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Macedonia	12 October 1995
Malta	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Moldova	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	29 January 1993
Monaco	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Mongolia	21 November 2012
Montenegro	22 June 2006	1 September 2006
Netherlands	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Norway	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Poland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Portugal	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Romania	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Russia (as USSR)	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
San Marino	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Serbia (as FR Yugoslavia)	10 November 2000	27 November 2000[citation needed]	27 November 2000[citation needed]
Slovakia	1 January 1993
Slovenia	24 March 1992	8 July 1992	8 March 1993
Spain	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Sweden	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Switzerland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Tajikistan	30 January 1992	26 February 1992
Turkey	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Turkmenistan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992
Ukraine	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	16 June 1992
United Kingdom	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
United States	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Uzbekistan	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	27 October 1993
Vatican City	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990

Partners for co-operation

Mediterranean States

• Algeria
• Egypt
• Israel
• Jordan
• Morocco
• Tunisia

Asia

• 1992   Japan
• 1994   South Korea
• 2000   Thailand
• 2003   Afghanistan

Oceania

• 2009   Australia

Structure and institutions

Political direction to the organization is given by heads of state or government during summits. Summits are not regular or scheduled but held as needed. The last summit took place in Astana (Kazakhstan), on 1 and 2 December 2010. The high-level decision-making body of the organization is the Ministerial Council, which meets at the end of every year. At ambassadorial level the Permanent Council convenes weekly in Vienna and serves as the regular negotiating and decision-making body. The post of chairman-in-office is held by the minister for foreign affairs of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. The chairperson of the Permanent Council is the ambassador to Austria of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. From 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2012 the Chairman-in-Office is Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland, Eamon Gilmore, who succeeded Lithuanian Foreign Minister Audronius Ažubalis.

In addition to the Ministerial Council and Permanent Council, the Forum for Security Co-operation is also an OSCE decision-making body. It deals predominantly with matters of military co-operation, such as modalities for inspections according to the Vienna Document of 1999.

The OSCE's Secretariat is located in Vienna, Austria. The current Secretary General is Lamberto Zannier of Italy, who took over from Marc Perrin de Brichambaut of France. The organization also has offices in Copenhagen, Geneva, The Hague, Prague and Warsaw.

A meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council at the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria.

The OSCE employs close to 440 persons in its various institutions. In the field, the organization has about 750 international and 2,370 national staff.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe passes resolutions on matters such as political and security affairs, economic and environmental issues, and democracy and human rights. Representing the collective voice of OSCE parliamentarians, these resolutions and recommendations are meant to ensure that all participating states live up to their OSCE commitments. The Parliamentary Assembly also engages in parliamentary diplomacy, and has an extensive election observation program.

The oldest OSCE institution is the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), established in 1991 following a decision made at the 1990 Summit of Paris. It is based in Warsaw, Poland, and is active throughout the OSCE area in the fields of election observation, democratic development, human rights, tolerance and non-discrimination, rule of law, and Roma and Sinti issues. The ODIHR has observed over 150 elections and referendums since 1995, sending some 35,000 observers. It has operated outside its own area twice, sending a team that offered technical support to the 9 October 2004 presidential elections in Afghanistan, an OSCE Partner for Co-operation, and an election support team to assist with parliamentary and provincial council elections on 18 September 2005. ODIHR is headed by Janez Lenarčič.

The Office of the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, established in December 1997, acts as a watchdog to provide early warning on violations of freedom of expression in OSCE participating States. The representative also assists participating States by advocating and promoting full compliance with OSCE norms, principles and commitments regarding freedom of expression and free media. As of 2011, the current representative is expert in media law from Bosnia and Herzegovina Dunja Mijatovic.

Chairmanship

OSCE Permanent Council site at the Hofburg, Vienna.

The responsibilities of the Chairman-in-Office (CiO) include

• co-ordination of the work of OSCE institutions;
• representing the Organization;
• supervising activities related to conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation.

The chairmanship rotates annually, and the post of the chairman-in-office is held by the foreign minister of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. The CiO is assisted by the previous and incoming chairman-in-office; the three of them together constitute the Troika. The origin of the institution lies with the Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990), the Helsinki Document 1992 formally institutionalized this function.

The 2012 Troika consists of the current CiO, Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland, Eamon Gilmore; the former CiO, Lithuanian Foreign Minister Audronius Ažubalis; and the incoming CiO, Ukrainian Foreign Minister Kostyantyn Hryshchenko.

Summits of heads of State and Government

Summit	Date	Place	Country	Decisions
I	30 July – 1 August 1975	Helsinki	Finland	Closing of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Signing of the Final Act (Helsinki Act).
II	19–21 November 1990	Paris	France	(Second CSCE Summit). Signing of the Charter of Paris for a New Europe (Paris Charter), the Vienna Confidence and Security Building Measures (CSBM) Document and the CFE Treaty.
III	9–10 July 1992	Helsinki	Finland	Final Document: The Challenges of Change. Creation of the High Commissioner on National Minorities, the Forum for Security Co-operation and the Economic Forum. Suspension of FR Yugoslavia from membership.
IV	5–6 December 1994	Budapest	Hungary	Final Document: Towards a Genuine Partnership in a New Era. Approval of a multi-national peace-keeping force to Nagorno-Karabakh. Endorsement of the Code of Conduct on politico-military aspects of security.
V	2–3 December 1996	Lisbon	Portugal	(First OSCE Summit). Lisbon Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the Twenty-First Century. Adoption of a Framework for Arms Control.
VI	18–19 November 1999	Istanbul	Turkey	Signing of the Istanbul Document and the Charter for European Security.
VII	1–2 December 2010	Astana	Kazakhstan	Adoption of the Astana Commemorative Declaration, which reconfirms the Organization's comprehensive approach to security based on trust and transparency.

Ministerial Council Meetings (ordinary)

Council	Date	Place	Country	Decisions
1st	19–20 June 1991	Berlin	Germany	Admission of Albania
2nd	30–31 January 1992	Prague	Czechoslovakia	Admission of ten former Soviet republics.
3rd	14–15 December 1992	Stockholm	Sweden	Creation of the post of Secretary General and appointment of Max van der Stoel as first High Commissioner on National Minorities.
4th	30 November – 1 December 1993	Rome	Italy	Establishment of the Mission to Tajikistan.
5th	7–8 December 1995	Budapest	Hungary	Establishment of the Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina to carry out the tasks assigned to the OSCE in the Dayton Peace Agreements.
6th	18–19 December 1997	Copenhagen	Denmark	Creation of the Co-ordinator of OSCE Economic and Environmental Activities and the Representative on Freedom of the Media.
7th	2–3 December 1998	Oslo	Norway
8th	27–28 November 2000	Vienna	Austria	Vienna Declaration on the OSCE's activities in South-Eastern Europe. Re-admission of FR Yugoslavia.
9th	3–4 December 2001	Bucharest	Romania	Bucharest Declaration. Bucharest Plan of Action for Combating Terrorism. Creation of the Strategic Police Matters Unit and a Senior Police Adviser in the OSCE Secretariat.
10th	6–7 December 2002	Porto	Portugal	Porto Declaration: Responding to Change. OSCE Charter on Preventing and Combating Terrorism.
11th	1–2 December 2003	Maastricht	Netherlands	Strategy to Address Threats to Security and Stability in the Twenty-First Century. Strategy Document for the Economic and Environmental Dimension.
12th	6–7 December 2004	Sofia	Bulgaria
13th	5–6 December 2005	Ljubljana	Slovenia	Statement on the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. Approval of the Border Security and Management Concept.
14th	4–5 December 2006	Brussels	Belgium	Brussels Declaration on Criminal Justice Systems. Ministerial Statement on Supporting and Promoting the International Legal Framework against Terrorism.
15th	29–30 November 2007	Madrid	Spain	Madrid Declaration on Environment and Security. Ministerial Statement on Supporting the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy.
16th	4–5 December 2008	Helsinki	Finland
17th	1–2 December 2009	Athens	Greece	Ministerial Declarations on Non-Proliferation and on the OSCE Corfu Process.
	16–17 July 2010	Almaty	Kazakhstan	Informal discussions on Corfu Process progress, the situation in Kyrgyzstan and the [forthcoming? preceding?] OSCE summit.
18th	6–7 December 2011	Vilnius	Lithuania	Decisions on responses to conflicts and transnational threats; to enhance capabilities in early warning; early action; dialogue facilitation and mediation support; and post-conflict rehabilitation. Decisions to enhance engagement with OSCE Partners for Co-operation, Afghanistan in particular.
19th	6–7 December 2012	Dublin	Ireland	Helsinki+40 Process: clear path to the 2015 40th anniversary of the Helsinki Final Act, intent to reinforce and revitalize the OSCE; unanimous support for Transdniestrian settlement process: negotiated, comprehensive, just and viable solution to the conflict; strengthening good governance: deepening engagement in preventing and countering corruption, addressing transnational threats, and adding an anti-terrorism framework to earlier decisions on threats from information and communication technologies, drugs and chemical precursors and strategic policing; despite Ireland's hopes, a decision on human rights was not reached: greater, still, was concern for the Council's trend of human rights decision-failures.

Chairmanship history

Chairmanship of the OSCE is held by a member state on a calendar-year basis, with the minister for foreign affairs of that state performing the function of Chairman-in-Office. The table below shows the holders since 1991.

Year	Country	Chairman-in-Office
1991	Germany	Hans-Dietrich Genscher (from June)
1992	Czechoslovakia	Jiří Dienstbier (until 2 July); Jozef Moravčík (from 3 July)
1993	Sweden	Margaretha af Ugglas
1994	Italy	Beniamino Andreatta (until 11 May); Antonio Martino (from 12 May)
1995	Hungary	László Kovács
1996	Switzerland	Flavio Cotti
1997	Denmark	Niels Helveg Petersen
1998	Poland	Bronislaw Geremek
1999	Norway	Knut Vollebaek
2000	Austria	Wolfgang Schüssel (until 4 February); Benita Ferrero-Waldner (from 5 February)
2001	Romania	Mircea Geoană
2002	Portugal	Jaime Gama (until 6 April); Antonio Martins da Cruz (from 7 April)
2003	Netherlands	Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (until 3 December); Bernard Bot (from 4 December)
2004	Bulgaria	Solomon Passy
2005	Slovenia	Dimitrij Rupel
2006	Belgium	Karel De Gucht
2007	Spain	Miguel Ángel Moratinos
2008	Finland	Ilkka Kanerva (until 4 April); Alexander Stubb (from 5 April)
2009	Greece	Dora Bakoyannis (until 5 October); George Papandreou (from 6 October)
2010	Kazakhstan	Kanat Saudabayev
2011	Lithuania	Audronius Ažubalis
2012	Ireland	Eamon Gilmore
2013	Ukraine	Leonid Kozhara
2014	Switzerland / Serbia
2015	Serbia / Switzerland

Fiscal history

Since 1993, the OSCE's budget by year (in millions of euros, not adjusted for inflation) has been:

• 2013 ... €144.8 million
• 2012 ... €148.4 million
• 2011 ... €150.0 million
• 2010 ... €150.7 million
• 2009 ... €158.6 million
• 2008 ... €164.1 million
• 2007 ... €186.2 million
• 2006 ... €186.2 million
• 2005 ... €186.6 million
• 2004 ... €180.8 million

• 2003 ... €165.5 million
• 2002 ... €167.5 million
• 2001 ... €194.5 million
• 2000 ... €202.7 million
• 1999 ... €146.1 million
• 1998 ... €118.7 million
• 1997 ... €43.3 million
• 1996 ... €34.9 million
• 1995 ... €18.9 million
• 1994 ... €21 million
• 1993 ... €12 million

Relations with the United Nations

The OSCE considers itself a regional organization in the sense of Chapter VIII of the United Nations Charter and is an observer in the United Nations General Assembly. The Chairman-in-Office gives routine briefings to the United Nations Security Council.

Politico-military dimension (first dimension)

The OSCE takes a comprehensive approach to the politico-military dimension of security, which includes a number of commitments by participating States and mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution. The organization also seeks to enhance military security by promoting greater openness, transparency and co-operation.

Arms control

The end of the Cold War resulted in a huge amount of surplus weapons becoming available in what is known as the international grey market for weapons. The OSCE helps to stop the - often illegal - spread of such weapons and offers assistance with their destruction. The OSCE hosts the annual exchange of information under the Conventional Forces in Europe treaty. The OSCE has also implemented two additional exchanges of information, the Vienna Document and the Global Exchange of Military Information. The Open Skies Consultative Commission, the implementing body for the Treaty on Open Skies, meets monthly at its Vienna headquarters.

Border management

The actions taken by the OSCE in border monitoring range from conflict prevention to post-conflict management, capacity building and institutional support.

Combating terrorism

With its expertise in conflict prevention, crisis management and early warning, the OSCE contributes to worldwide efforts in combating terrorism.

Conflict prevention

The OSCE works to prevent conflicts from arising and to facilitate lasting comprehensive political settlements for existing conflicts. It also helps with the process of rehabilitation in post-conflict areas.

Military reform

The OSCE's Forum for Security Co-operation provides a framework for political dialogue on military reform, while practical activities are conducted by field operations, as well as the Conflict Prevention Centre.

Policing

OSCE police operations are an integral part of the organization's efforts in conflict prevention and post-conflict rehabilitation.

Implementation

The OSCE was a rather small organization until selection by the international community to provide electoral organization to post war Bosnia and Herzegovina in early 1996. Ambassador Frowick was the first OSCE representative to initiate national election in September 1996, human rights issues and rule of law specifically designed to provide a foundation for judicial organization within Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The OSCE had regional offices and field offices, to include the office in Brcko in northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina which remained in limbo until the Brcko Arbitration Agreement could be decided, finalized and implemented.

Brcko become a "special district" and remains so today.

The OSCE essentially took the place of the United Nations in Bosnia and Herzegovina in part because the Bosnian leadership felt deep contempt for the UN efforts to stop the war which began in 1991 and ended in 1995. During the time the United Nations were attempting a political solution, thousands of UN troops were posted in and around Bosnia and Herzegovina with special emphasis on Sarajevo. Between the inclusive dates of 1991 through 1995, over 200,000 Bosnians were killed and over one million displaced and another million as refugees.

The OSCE continues to have a presence and a number of initiatives to bring a sustained peace to the region.

Economic and environmental dimension (second dimension)

Activities in the economic and environmental dimension include the monitoring of developments related to economic and environmental security in OSCE participating States, with the aim of alerting them to any threat of conflict; assisting States in the creation of economic and environmental policies, legislation and institutions to promote security in the OSCE region.

Economic activities

Among the economic activities of the OSCE feature activities related to migration management, transport and energy security. Most activities are implemented in co-operation with partner organizations.

Environmental activities

The OSCE has developed a range of activities in the environmental sphere aimed at addressing ecologic threats to security in its participating States. Among the activities feature projects in the area of hazardous waste, water management and access to information under the Aarhus Convention.

Human dimension (third dimension)

The commitments made by OSCE participating States in the human dimension aim to ensure full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; to abide by the rule of law; to promote the principles of democracy by building, strengthening and protecting democratic institutions; and to promote tolerance throughout the OSCE region.

Combating trafficking in human beings

Since 2003 the OSCE has had an established mechanism for combating trafficking in human beings, as defined by Article 3 of the Palermo Protocol, which is aimed at raising public awareness of the problem and building the political will within participating states to tackle it effectively.

The OSCE actions against trafficking in human beings are coordinated by the Office of the Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings. Maria Grazia Giammarinaro, a judge in the Criminal Court of Rome, took Office as the Special Representative in March 2010. From 2006 to 2009 this Office was held by Eva Biaudet, a former Finnish Minister of Health and Social Services. Ms Biaudet currently serves as Finnish Ombudsman for Minorities. Her predecessor was former Austrian Minister Dr Helga Conrad, who served as the first OSCE Special Representative for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings.

The activities around Combating Trafficking in Human Beings in the OSCE Region of the Office of the Special Representative include

• Co-operation with governments, helping them to accept and act on their responsibilities for curbing trafficking in human beings;
• Providing governments with decision and policy-making aids and offering guidance on anti-trafficking management, with the aim of arriving at solutions tailored to the needs of the individual countries and in line with international standards;
• Assisting governments to develop the national anti-trafficking structures required for efficient internal and transnational co-operation;
• Raising awareness to draw attention to the complexity of the problem and to the need for comprehensive solutions;
• Considering all dimensions of human trafficking, namely trafficking for sexual exploitation, trafficking for forced and bonded labour, including domestic servitude, trafficking into forced marriages, trafficking in organs and trafficking in children;
• Ensuring the effective interaction of all agents and stake holders involved in the fight against human trafficking, ranging from governmental authorities, law enforcement officials to NGOs, and - last but not least - international organizations, as the agencies providing support thorough expertise and know-how;
• Guaranteeing the highest possible visibility of the OSCE’s fight against human trafficking to focus attention on the issue.

Democratization

The OSCE claims to promote democracy and assist the participating states in building democratic institutions. In practice, however, few states have more power in decision-making than others^{[citation needed]} (see Criticisms).

Education

Education programmes are an integral part of the organization's efforts in conflict prevention and post-conflict rehabilitation.

Elections

As part of its democratization activities, the OSCE carries out election assistance projects in the run-up to, during, and following elections. However, the effectiveness of such assistance is arguable- Kazakhstan, for example, despite being the current chair of the OSCE, is considered by many to be one of the least democratic countries in the world. Moreover, the recent democratic advances made in other Central Asian republics, notably Kyrgyzstan, have led to rumours of Soviet-style disruption of the Kyrgyz democratic process by, in particular, Kazakhstan and Russia. This may be in large part due to fears over the long-term stability of these countries' own quasi-dictatorships.

Gender equality

The equality of men and women is an integral part of sustainable democracy. The OSCE aims to provide equal opportunities for men and women and to integrate gender equality in policies and practices.

Human rights

The OSCE's human rights activities focus on such priorities as freedom of movement and religion, preventing torture and trafficking in persons.

National and international NGOs

OSCE could grant consultive status to NGOs and INGOs in the form of "Researcher-in-residence programme" (run by the Prague Office of the OSCE Secretariat): accredited representatives of national and international NGOs are granted access to all records and to numerous topical compilations related to OSCE field activities.

Media freedom

The OSCE observes relevant media developments in its participating states with a view to addressing and providing early warning on violations of freedom of expression.

Minority rights

Ethnic conflict is one of the main sources of large-scale violence in Europe today. The OSCE's approach is to identify and to seek early resolution of ethnic tensions, and to set standards for the rights of persons belonging to minority groups.

Criticism

Following an unprecedented period of activity in the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), the OSCE has in the past few years faced accusations from the CIS states (primarily Russia) of being a tool for the Western states to advance their own interests. For instance, the events in Ukraine in 2004 (the "Orange Revolution") led to allegations by Russia of OSCE involvement on behalf of the pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko. At the 2007 Munich Conference on Security Policy, Vladimir Putin made this position very clear:

"They [unnamed Western States] are trying to transform the OSCE into a vulgar instrument designed to promote the foreign policy interests of one or a group of countries. And this task is also being accomplished by the OSCE's bureaucratic apparatus, which is absolutely not connected with the state founders in any way. Decision-making procedures and the involvement of so-called non-governmental organizations are tailored for this task. These organizations are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control." 

Also, following the Belorussian Presidential election of 2001, the OSCE denounced the election, claiming it to be neither 'free nor fair'; however, the OSCE had actually refused to observe the vote, and still made the aforementioned claim, despite Gerard Stoudmann of the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) of the OSCE acknowledging that there was "no evidence of manipulation or fraud of the results".

In 2004 the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly sent election observers to the US Presidential elections. The OSCE Parliamentary Assembly’s president at the time was Democratic Congressman Alcee Hastings. Hastings had previously been impeached for corruption by the US Congress. The OSCE faced criticism of partisanship and double standards due to Hastings's past and the fact that the OSCE's mandate was to promote democracy and the values of civil society.

Russia and its allies are advancing the concept of a comprehensive OSCE reform, which would make the Secretariat, institutions and field presences more centralized and accountable to collective consensus-based bodies and focus the work of the Organization on topical security issues (human trafficking, terrorism, non-proliferation, arms control, etc.), at the expense of the "Human Dimension", or human rights issues. The move to reduce the autonomy of the theoretically independent OSCE institutions, such as ODIHR, would effectively grant a Russian veto over any OSCE activity. Western participating States are opposing this process, which they see as an attempt to prevent the OSCE from carrying out its democratization agenda in post-Soviet countries.

Following the 2008 U.S. presidential election, OSCE's ODIHR was accused of having double standards by Russia's lawmaker Slutsky. The point was made that while numerous violations of the voting process were registered, its criticism came only from within the U.S. (media, human rights organizations, McCain's election staff), while the OSCE known for its bashing criticism of elections on the post-Soviet space remained silent.

In 2010 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe was criticized from within by the Latvian delegation for lacking transparency and democracy. Spencer Oliver (b. 1938) secretary general of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, who has held the post since the organization's inception in 1992, faced a challenge from the Latvian Artis Pabriks. According to the rules of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly the incumbent general secretary can only be replaced with a full consensus minus one. Pabriks called the rules "quite shocking from the perspective of an organization that's monitoring elections"

Texas controversy in 2012

Before the US presidential elections of November 2012, the OSCE announced its intention to send electoral observers to Texas and to other US states. In response, Greg Abbott, the Attorney General of Texas sent letters to US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and to the OSCE threatening to arrest OSCE officials if they should enter electoral premises in Texas and break Texas law. In response, the US Department of State indicated that OSCE observers enjoyed immunities. However no incidents between OSCE and Texas authorities were recorded during the elections.

See also

• Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty
• Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia
• Council of Europe
• Election fraud
• Election observer
• Europe
• European Union
• Julie Finley, United States ambassador.

• International Federation for Human Rights
• International organization
• International organisations in Europe
• NATO
• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe statistics
• OSCE Minsk Group
• OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media
• Silence procedure
• Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
• Western European Union

References

External links

• Official website
• OSCE Handbook (full version with hyperlinks to key documents)
• OSCE The U.S. Mission to the OSCE
• OSCE The OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina
• OSCE POLIS Policing OnLine Information System
• OSCE at the Open Directory Project
• United States Institute of Peace online training course for OSCE required for U.S. citizens hired by the Organization. Provides a detailed outline of the OSCE, with additional modules on each major area that it is involved in. Website freely available, but tests only given to those who have submitted applications.
• OSCE eLearning unit created by ISRG - University of Innsbruck
• Official OSCE account on Twitter
• Summer Academy on OSCE
• The short film Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
• Postage stamps of Moldova celebrating her admission to the OSCE

English Journal

• An implementation framework for using OSCEs in nursing curricula.

• Henderson A, Nulty DD, Mitchell ML, Jeffrey CA, Kelly M, Groves M, Glover P, Knight S.SourceGriffith University, Australia; Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia. Electronic address: Amanda_Henderson@health.qld.gov.au.
• Nurse education today.Nurse Educ Today.2013 Dec;33(12):1459-61. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2013.04.008. Epub 2013 May 15.
• PMID 23683816

• Implementation and student evaluation of clinical final examination in nursing education.

• Mårtensson G, Löfmark A.SourceFaculty of Health and Occupational Studies, Department of Health and Caring Sciences, University of Gävle, Sweden; Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, Sweden. Electronic address: gls@hig.se.
• Nurse education today.Nurse Educ Today.2013 Dec;33(12):1563-8. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2013.01.003. Epub 2013 Feb 8.
• BACKGROUND: Clinical examinations have a distinct focus, the overall aim being to demonstrate through action whether nursing students have acquired the knowledge and skills necessary to be safe and accountable practitioners. This complexity of knowledge cannot be assessed using single examinations,
• PMID 23398913

• Palliative and end-of-life care training during the surgical clerkship.

• Tchorz KM, Binder SB, White MT, Lawhorne LW, Bentley DM, Delaney EA, Borchers J, Miller M, Barney LM, Dunn MM, Rundell KW, Thambipillai T, Woods RJ, Markert RJ, Parikh PP, McCarthy MC.SourceDepartment of Surgery, Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio. Electronic address: kathryn.tchorz@wright.edu.
• The Journal of surgical research.J Surg Res.2013 Nov;185(1):97-101. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2013.05.102. Epub 2013 Jun 22.
• BACKGROUND: In 2000, the Liaison Committee on Medical Education required that all medical schools provide experiential training in end-of-life care. To adhere to this mandate and advance the professional development of medical students, experiential training in communication skills at the end-of-l
• PMID 23870835

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