Enterococcus |
|
Enterococcus sp. infection in pulmonary tissue |
Scientific classification |
Kingdom: |
Bacteria |
Division: |
Firmicutes |
Class: |
Bacilli |
Order: |
Lactobacillales |
Family: |
Enterococcaceae |
Genus: |
Enterococcus
(ex Thiercelin & Jouhaud 1903)
Schleifer & Kilpper-Bälz 1984 |
Species[1] |
- Enterococcus alcedinis
- Enterococcus aquimarinus
- Enterococcus asini
- Enterococcus avium
- Enterococcus caccae
- Enterococcus camelliae
- Enterococcus canintestini
- Enterococcus canis
- Enterococcus casseliflavus
- Enterococcus cecorum
- Enterococcus columbae
- Enterococcus devriesei
- Enterococcus diestrammenae
- Enterococcus dispar
- Enterococcus durans
- Enterococcus eurekensis
- Enterococcus faecalis
- Enterococcus faecium
- Enterococcus gallinarum
- Enterococcus gilvus
- Enterococcus haemoperoxidus
- Enterococcus hermanniensis
- Enterococcus hirae
- Enterococcus italicus
- Enterococcus lactis
- Enterococcus lemanii
- Enterococcus malodoratus
- Enterococcus moraviensis
- Enterococcus mundtii
- Enterococcus olivae
- Enterococcus pallens
- Enterococcus phoeniculicola
- Enterococcus plantarum
- Enterococcus pseudoavium
- Enterococcus quebecensis
- Enterococcus raffinosus
- Enterococcus ratti
- Enterococcus rivorum
- Enterococcus rotai
- Enterococcus saccharolyticus
- Enterococcus silesiacus
- Enterococcus solitarius
- Enterococcus sulfureus
- Enterococcus termitis
- Enterococcus thailandicus
- Enterococcus ureasiticus
- Enterococcus ureilyticus
- Enterococcus viikkiensis
- Enterococcus villorum
- Enterococcus xiangfangensis
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Enterococcus is a large genus of lactic acid bacteria of the phylum Firmicutes. Enterococci are Gram-positive cocci that often occur in pairs (diplococci) or short chains, and are difficult to distinguish from streptococci on physical characteristics alone.[2] Two species are common commensal organisms in the intestines of humans: E. faecalis (90-95%) and E. faecium (5-10%). Rare clusters of infections occur with other species, including E. casseliflavus, E. gallinarum, and E. raffinosus.[2]
Contents
- 1 Physiology and classification
- 2 Pathology
- 3 Water quality
- 4 References
Physiology and classification
Enterococci are facultative anaerobic organisms, i.e., they are capable of cellular respiration in both oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments.[3] Though they are not capable of forming spores, enterococci are tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions: extreme temperature (10-45°C), pH (4.5-10.0) and high sodium chloride concentrations.[4]
Enterococci typically exhibit gamma-hemolysis on sheep's blood agar.[5]
History
Members of the genus Enterococcus (from Greek έντερο, éntero, "intestine" and κοκκος, coccos, "granule") were classified as Group D Streptococcus until 1984, when genomic DNA analysis indicated a separate genus classification would be appropriate.[6]
Pathology
Important clinical infections caused by Enterococcus include urinary tract infections, bacteremia, bacterial endocarditis, diverticulitis, and meningitis.[4][5] Sensitive strains of these bacteria can be treated with ampicillin, penicillin and vancomycin.[7] Urinary tract infections can be treated specifically with nitrofurantoin, even in cases of vancomycin resistance.[8]
From a medical standpoint, an important feature of this genus is the high level of intrinsic antibiotic resistance. Some enterococci are intrinsically resistant to β-lactam-based antibiotics (penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems), as well as many aminoglycosides.[5] In the last two decades, particularly virulent strains of Enterococcus that are resistant to vancomycin (vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, or VRE) have emerged in nosocomial infections of hospitalized patients, especially in the US.[4] Other developed countries, such as the UK, have been spared this epidemic, and, in 2005, Singapore managed to halt an epidemic of VRE.[9] VRE may be treated with quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid) with response rates of approximately 70%.[10] Tigecycline has also been shown to have anti-enterococcal activity as has rifampicin.[citation needed]
Enterococcal meningitis is a rare complication of neurosurgery. It often requires treatment with intravenous or intrathecal vancomycin, yet it is debatable as to whether its use has any impact on outcome: the removal of any neurological devices is a crucial part of the management of these infections.[11] New epidemiological evidence has shown that enterococci are major infectious agent in chronic bacterial prostatitis[citation needed]. Enterococci are able to form biofilm in the prostate gland making their eradication difficult.
Enterococcus |
Classification and external resources |
ICD-9 |
041.04 |
Water quality
In bodies of water, the acceptable level of contamination is very low; for example in the state of Hawaii, and most of the United States, the limit for water off its beaches is a five-week geometric mean of 35 colony-forming units per 100 ml of water, above which the state may post warnings to stay out of the ocean.[12] In 2004, Enterococci sp. took the place of fecal coliforms as the new USA federal standard for water quality at public saltwater beaches and E. coli at freshwater beaches.[13] It is believed to provide a higher correlation than fecal coliform with many of the human pathogens often found in city sewage.[14]
References
- ^ LPSN entry for Enterococcus
- ^ a b Gilmore MS et al., eds. (2002). The Enterococci: Pathogenesis, Molecular Biology, and Antibiotic Resistance. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. ISBN 978-1-55581-234-8.
- ^ Fischetti VA, Novick RP, Ferretti JJ, Portnoy DA, Rood JI, ed. (2000). Gram-Positive Pathogens. ASM Press. ISBN 1-55581-166-3.
- ^ a b c Fisher K, Phillips C (June 2009). "The ecology, epidemiology and virulence of Enterococcus". Microbiology 155 (Pt 6): 1749–57. doi:10.1099/mic.0.026385-0. PMID 19383684.
- ^ a b c Ryan KJ, Ray CG, ed. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 294–5. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
- ^ Schleifer KH; Kilpper-Balz R (1984). "Transfer of Streptococcus faecalis and Streptococcus faecium to the genus Enterococcus nom. rev. as Enterococcus faecalis comb. nov. and Enterococcus faecium comb. nov.". Int. J. Sys. Bacteriol. 34: 31–34. doi:10.1099/00207713-34-1-31.
- ^ Pelletier LL Jr. (1996). Microbiology of the Circulatory System. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
- ^ Zhanel GG, Hoban DJ, Karlowsky JA (January 2001). "Nitrofurantoin is active against vancomycin-resistant enterococci". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45 (1): 324–6. doi:10.1128/AAC.45.1.324-326.2001. PMC 90284. PMID 11120989.
- ^ Kurup, Asok; Chlebicki, M.P.; Ling, M.L.; Koh, T.H.; Tan, K.Y.; Lee, L.C.; Howe, K.B.M. (April 2008). "Control of a hospital-wide vancomycin-resistant Enterococci outbreak". American Journal of Infection Control 36 (3): 206–211. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2007.06.005. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
- ^ Tünger A, Aydemir S, Uluer S, Cilli F (2004). "In vitro activity of linezolid & quinupristin/dalfopristin against Gram-positive cocci". Indian J Med Res 120 (6): 546–52. PMID 15654141.
- ^ Guardado R; Asensi V; Torres JM et al. (2006). "Post-surgical enterococcal meningitis: clinical and epidemiological study of 20 cases". Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 38 (8): 584–8. doi:10.1080/00365540600606416. PMID 16857599.
- ^ "Clean Water Branch" (PDF). Hawaii State Department of Health. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
- ^ "Water Quality Standards for Coastal and Great Lakes Recreation Waters; Final Rule". Federal Register 69 (220): 67218–67243. 16 November 2004. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
- ^ Jin G, Jeng HW, Bradford H, Englande AJ (2004). "Comparison of E. coli, enterococci, and fecal coliform as indicators for brackish water quality assessment". Water Environ. Res. 76 (3): 245–55. doi:10.2175/106143004X141807. PMID 15338696.
- Firmicutes (low-G+C) Infectious diseases
- Bacterial diseases: G+
- primarily A00–A79, 001–041, 080–109
|
|
Bacilli |
Lactobacillales
(Cat-) |
Streptococcus |
α |
optochin susceptible: |
|
|
optochin resistant: |
- S. viridans: S. mitis
- S. mutans
- S. oralis
- S. sanguinis
- S. sobrinus
- milleri group
|
|
|
β |
A: |
- bacitracin susceptible: S. pyogenes
- Group A streptococcal infection
- Streptococcal pharyngitis
- Scarlet fever
- Erysipelas
- Rheumatic fever
|
|
B: |
- bacitracin resistant, CAMP test+: S. agalactiae
- Group B streptococcal infection
|
|
ungrouped: |
- Streptococcus iniae
- Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection
|
|
|
γ |
- D
- BEA+: Streptococcus bovis
|
|
|
Enterococcus |
- BEA+: Enterococcus faecalis
- Enterococcus faecium
|
|
|
Bacillales
(Cat+) |
Staphylococcus |
Cg+: |
- S. aureus
- Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
- Toxic shock syndrome
- MRSA
|
|
Cg-: |
- novobiocin susceptible
- novobiocin resistant
|
|
|
Bacillus |
- Bacillus anthracis
- Bacillus cereus
|
|
Listeria |
|
|
|
|
Clostridia |
Clostridium (spore-forming) |
motile: |
- Clostridium difficile
- Clostridium botulinum
- Clostridium tetani
|
|
nonmotile: |
- Clostridium perfringens
- Gas gangrene
- Clostridial necrotizing enteritis
|
|
|
Peptostreptococcus (non-spore forming) |
- Peptostreptococcus magnus
|
|
|
Mollicutes |
Mycoplasmataceae |
- Ureaplasma urealyticum
- Mycoplasma genitalium
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae
|
|
Anaeroplasmatales |
- Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
|
|
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Index of bacterial disease
|
|
Description |
|
|
Disease |
- Gram-positive firmicutes
- Gram-positive actinobacteria
- Gram-negative proteobacteria
- Gram-negative non-proteobacteria
- Cholera
- Tuberculosis
|
|
Treatment |
- Antibiotics
- cell wall
- nucleic acid
- mycobacteria
- protein synthesis
- other
- Antibodies
|
|
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