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the act of substituting other food for the mothers milk in the diet of a child or young mammal (同)ablactation
detach the affections of
gradually deprive (infants and young mammals) of mothers milk; "she weaned her baby when he was 3 months old and started him on powdered milk"; "The kitten was weaned and fed by its owner with a bottle" (同)ablactate

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〈赤ん坊・動物の子〉‘を'離乳させる / (楽しみ・習慣などから)〈人〉‘を'引き離す,思い切らせる《+名〈人〉+away from+名(doing)》

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/05/31 12:58:51」(JST)

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Weaning is the process of gradually introducing a mammal infant to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk.

The process takes place only in mammals, as only mammals produce milk. The infant is considered to be fully weaned once it no longer receives any breast milk (or bottled substitute).

Weaning in human infants [edit]

How and when to wean a human infant is a subject of much controversy. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends feeding a baby only breast milk for the first 6 months of its life, and continuing breastfeeding until the child is at least one year old and for as long after that as the mother and child both wish to continue.^[1] However many mothers find breastfeeding challenging, especially in modern times when many mothers have to return to work relatively soon after the birth of their child.

The American Academy of Pediatrics and the World Health Organization recommend waiting until 6 months to introduce baby food.^[1] However, many baby food companies market their "stage 1" foods to children between 4 and 6 months old with the precaution that the food is meant to be consumed in addition to breast milk or formula and is just for "practice". These practice foods are generally soft and runny. Examples include mashed fruit and vegetables. Certain foods are recommended to be avoided. The United Kingdom's NHS recommends withholding foods including those "that contain wheat, gluten, nuts, peanuts, peanut products, seeds, liver, eggs, fish, shellfish, cows’ milk and soft or unpasteurised cheese" until a baby is six months old, as they may cause food allergies or make the baby ill.^[2] However, recommendations such as these have been called into question by research that suggests early exposure to potential allergens does not increase the likelihood of allergies.^[3]

In many cultures around the world, weaning progresses with the introduction of feeding the child food that has been prechewed by the parent along with continued breastfeed, a practice known as premastication.^[4] The practice was important in human history in that it naturally gave a child a greatly improved protein source and also that prevents infant iron deficiency.^[5] The prechewing of food also allows gives thet baby long-term immunological benefits through factors in the mother's saliva.^[4] However, premasticated food from caregivers of lower socioeconomic status in areas of endemic diseases can result in passing the disease to the child.^[6]

No matter what age baby food is introduced, it is generally a very messy affair, as young children do not have the coordination to eat "neatly".^{[citation needed]} Coordination for using utensils properly and eating with dexterity takes years to develop. Many babies begin using utensils between 10 and 14 months, but most will not be able to feed themselves well until about 2 or 3 years of age.^{[citation needed]}

Weaning conflict [edit]

At this point, the mother tries to force the infant to cease nursing, while the infant attempts to force the mother to continue. From an evolutionary perspective, weaning conflict may be considered the result of the cost of continued nursing to the mother, perhaps in terms of reduced ability to raise future offspring, exceeding the benefits to the mother in terms of increased survival of the current infant.^[7] This can come about because future offspring will be equally related to the mother as the current infant, but will share less than 100% of the current infant's genes. So, from the perspective of the mother's evolutionary fitness, it makes sense for her to cease nursing the current infant as soon as the cost to future offspring exceeds the benefit to the current infant.^[7] But, assuming the current infant shares 50% of the future offsprings' genes, from the perspective of the infant's own evolutionary fitness, it makes sense for the infant to continue nursing until the cost to future offspring exceeds twice the benefit to itself (perhaps less, depending on the number of potential future offspring).^[7]^[8] Weaning conflict has been studied for a variety of mammal species, including primates and canines.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Age of weaning [edit]

There is significant individual and cultural variation in time of weaning.

Scientifically, one can ask various questions; some of the most straightforwardly empirical include:

At what age do children self-wean?
At what age do various societies normatively choose to wean?
In comparison with other animals, especially similar primates, by various measures.

As there are significant ranges and skew in these numbers (some infants are never nursed, or only nursed briefly, for instance), looking at the median (half-way mark) is more useful than looking at the average.^[12]

Considering biological measures of maturity, notably investigated by Kathy Dettwyler, yields a range of ages from 2 1/2 years to 7 years as the weaning age analogous to other primates – the "natural age of weaning".^[12] This depends on the measure, for example: weaning in non-human primates is often associated with eruption of permanent molars (humans: 5 1/2 to 6 years); comparing duration of nursing to length of pregnancy (gestation time) yields a factor of about 6 in chimpanzees and gorillas (humans: 6×9 months = 54 months = 4 1/2 years); body weight may be compared to birth weight (quadrupling of birth weight yields about 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 years for humans; 1/3 of adult weight yields 5 to 7 years for humans); and similarly for other measures.

The age at which children are normatively weaned can vary significantly between cultures, "from 6 months to 5 1/2 years".^{[citation needed]} There is often a cultural expectation in the United States that children be weaned early.^{[citation needed]}

Other studies are possible, as in psychological factors. For example, Barbara Rogoff has noted, citing a 1953 study by Whiting & Child, that the most distressing time to wean a child is at 13–18 months. After this peak, weaning becomes progressively easier and less distressing for the child, with "older children frequently wean[ing] themselves."^[13]

Weaning in other mammals [edit]

In science, mice are frequently used in laboratory experiments. When breeding laboratory mice in a controlled environment, the weaning is defined as the moment when the pups are transferred out of the mothers' cage. Weaning is recommended at 3 to 4 weeks after parturition.^[14]

For pet carnivores such as dogs or cats, there are special puppy or kitten foods commercially available. Alternatively, if the pet owner feeds the parent animals home-made pet food, the young can be fed the same foods chopped into small pieces.

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b "Longer Breastfeeding Leads to Better Protection". American Academy of Pediatrics. 2010. Retrieved 2012-02-26.
^ "Solids: the first steps". Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ "The New Yorker".
^ ^a ^b Pelto, Greta; Zhang, Yuanyuan; Habicht, Jean-Pierre (2010), "Premastication: the second arm of infant and young child feeding for health and survival?", Journal of Maternal and Child Nutrition (Blackwell Publishing Ltd), doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00200.x
^ Stoltzfus, Rebecca J. (2011), Iron Interventions for Women and Children in Low-Income Countries 141 (4), Journal of Nutrition, pp. 756S–762S, doi:10.3945/jn.110.128793
^ Premasticating Food for Weaning African Infants: A Possible Vehicle for Transmission of HIV, Elke R. Maritz, Martin Kidd, Mark F. Cotton Pediatrics Vol. 128 No. 3 September 1, 2011 http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/3/e579.abstract
^ ^a ^b ^c Salmon, C. & Shackelford, T.K. (2008). Family Relationships: An Evolutionary Perspective. Oxford University Press. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-0-19-532051-0.
^ "Parent-offspring conflict". Retrieved 2009-09-23.
^ Trivers, R. (2002). Natural selection and social theory. Oxford University Press. pp. 124–126. ISBN 978-0-19-513062-1.
^ "Gorilla". National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin - Madison. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
^ Packard, J.M., Mech, L.D. & Ream, R.R. "Weaning in an arctic wolf pack:behavior mechanisms". pp. 1269–1275. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
^ ^a ^b "A Natural Age of Weaning", by Katherine Dettwyler, brief version of chapter "A Time to Wean" in Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives, pp. 39–73, ed. Patricia Stuart-Macadam and Katherine A. Dettwyler, 1995, ISBN 978-0-202-01192-9
^ Rogoff, B. (2003). The Cultural Nature Of Human Development. Oxford University Press. pp. 64–65. ISBN 0-19-513133-9.
^ http://ko.cwru.edu/services/musfrming.html^{[dead link]}

UpToDate Contents

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1. 機械的人工換気からの離脱法（ウィーニング） methods of weaning from mechanical ventilation
2. 授乳および離乳の一般的問題 common problems of breastfeeding and weaning
3. 機械的人工換気からの離脱（ウィーニング）：準備テスト weaning from mechanical ventilation readiness testing
4. 離脱困難な患者のマネージメント management of the difficult to wean patient
5. 機械的人工換気からの離脱（ウィーニング）：頻呼吸指数 weaning from mechanical ventilation the rapid shallow breathing index

English Journal

1,25(OH)2D deficiency induces temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis via secretion of senescence-associated inflammatory cytokines.

Shen M, Luo Y, Niu Y, Chen L, Yuan X, Goltzman D, Chen N, Miao D.SourceInstitute of Stomatology, Nanjing Medical University, No. 140, Han Zhong Road, Nanjing 210029, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
Bone.Bone.2013 Aug;55(2):400-9. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2013.04.015. Epub 2013 Apr 25.
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] insufficiency appears to be associated with several age-related diseases. Insufficient levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D has been shown to lead to the progression of osteoarthritis (OA) while underlying biological mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this stud
PMID 23624390

Prenatal alcohol exposure alters the cerebral cortex proteome in weanling rats.

Canales L, Gambrell C, Chen J, Neal RE.SourceDepartment of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Information Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States.
Reproductive toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.).Reprod Toxicol.2013 Aug;39:69-75. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2013.04.003. Epub 2013 May 20.
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Dietary inulin alters the intestinal absorptive and barrier function of piglet intestine after weaning.

Awad WA, Ghareeb K, Paßlack N, Zentek J.SourceInstitute of Animal Nutrition, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Clinic for Avian, Reptile and Fish Medicine, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, A-1210 Vienna, Austria. Electronic address: wageha.awad@vetmeduni.ac.at.
Research in veterinary science.Res Vet Sci.2013 Aug;95(1):249-54. doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.02.009. Epub 2013 Mar 22.
An experiment was conducted to study the effects of dietary inulin supplementation on the electrophysiological properties of small intestine of suckling and weaned piglets as indicators for glucose absorption and barrier function. Ten sows were divided into two groups, receiving either a control die
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Japanese Journal

Effects of cellooligosaccharide or a combination of cellooligosaccharide and live Clostridium butyricum culture on performance and intestinal ecology in Holstein calves fed milk or milk replacer

Uyeno Yutaka,Kawashima Kenji,Hasunuma Toshiya,Wakimoto Wataru,Noda Masahito,Nagashima Sigeo,Akiyama Kiyoshi,Tabata Masahiko,Kushibiki Shiro
LIVESTOCK SCIENCE 153(1-3), 88-93, 2013-05-00
… The CE and SB groups were fed CE at 5 g/day before weaning and 10 g/day postweaning. …
NAID 120005312273

初めて育児をする母親が離乳をとおして母親役割を獲得していくプロセス : 離乳後期における母親役割獲得の質的研究

中田久恵,村井文江,江守陽子
母性衛生 54(1), 69-77, 2013-04-00
本研究の目的は,離乳という育児をとおして獲得される母親役割のプロセスを明らかにすることである。離乳後期にある第1子を育てている母親24名に面接調査を行い,修正版グラウンデット・セオリー・アプローチを用いて分析した。母親が離乳という育児をとおして母親役割を獲得するプロセスにおいて,【離乳に対する構えをもつ】【判断材料をそろえていく】【判断材料を使いこなす】【自分と子どもの歯車をあわせる】【心のあそび …
NAID 110009603921

Development of diurnal micturition pattern in mice after weaning.

Negoro Hiromitsu,Kanematsu Akihiro,Matsuo Masahiro,Okamura Hitoshi,Tabata Yasuhiko,Ogawa Osamu
The Journal of urology 189(2), 740-746, 2013-02-00
… [Materials and Methods] Micturition in young and adult C57BL/6 strain mice, including 5 males and 4 females at age 3 weeks immediately after weaning, and 5 of each gender at ages 9 to 10 weeks, respectively, was recorded by the automated voided stain on paper method. …
NAID 120005241363