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In linguistics, a stratum (Latin for "layer") or strate is a language that influences, or is influenced by another through contact. A substratum or substrate is a language which has lower power or prestige than another, while a superstratum or superstrate is the language that has higher power or prestige. Both substratum and superstratum languages influence each other, but in different ways. An adstratum or adstrate refers to a language that is in contact with another language in a neighbor population without having identifiably higher or lower prestige. The notion of "strata" has first been developed by the Italian linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli (1829–1907), and became known in the English-speaking world by two different authors in 1932.[1]
Thus, both terms refer to a situation where an intrusive language establishes itself in the territory of another, typically as the result of migration. Whether the superstratum case (the local language persists and the intrusive language disappears) or the substratum one (the local language disappears and the intrusive language persists) applies will normally only be evident after several generations, during which the intrusive language exists within a diaspora culture. In order for the intrusive language to persist (substratum case), the immigrant population will either need to take the position of a political elite or immigrate in significant numbers relative to the local population (i. e., the intrusion qualifies as an invasion or colonisation, an example would be the Roman Empire giving rise to Romance languages outside of Italy, displacing Gaulish and many other languages).
The superstratum case refers to elite populations which eventually adopt the local language (an example would be the Burgundians and Franks in France, who eventually abandoned their Germanic dialects in favor of Romance).
A substratum (plural: substrata) or substrate is a language that influences an intrusive language that supplants it. The term is also used of substrate interference; i.e. the influence the substratum language exerts on the replacing language. According to some classifications, this is one of three main types of linguistic interference: substratum interference differs from both adstratum, which involves no language replacement but rather mutual borrowing between languages of equal "value", and superstratum, which refers to the influence a socially dominating language has on another, receding language that might eventually be relegated to the status of a substratum language.
In a typical case of substrate interference, a Language A occupies a given territory and another Language B arrives in the same territory (brought, for example, with migrations of population). Language B then begins to supplant language A: the speakers of Language A abandon their own language in favor of the other language, generally because they believe that it will help them achieve certain goals within government, the workplace, and in social settings. During the language shift, however, the receding language A still influences language B (for example, through the transfer of loanwords, place names, or grammatical patterns from A to B).
One example of a substrate language is Gaulish, from the ancient Celtic people the Gauls. The Gauls lived in the modern French-speaking territory before the arrival of the Romans, namely the invasion of Julius Caesar's militia. Given the cultural, economic and political advantages that came with being a Latin speaker, the Gauls eventually abandoned their language in favor of the language brought to them by the Romans, which evolved in this region until eventually it took the form of the French language that is known today. The Gaulish speech disappeared, but remnants of its vocabulary survive in some French words (approximately 150) as well as place-names of Gaulish origin.
Another example is the influence of the now extinct North Germanic Norn language on the Scots dialects of the Shetland and Orkney islands.
In the Arab Middle East and North Africa, colloquial Arabic dialects, most especially Levantine, Egyptian, and Maghreb dialects, often exhibit significant substrata from other regional Semitic, Iranian, and Berber languages.
Linguistic substrata may be difficult to detect, especially if the substrate language and its nearest relatives are extinct. For example, the earliest form of the Germanic languages may have been influenced by a non-Indo-European language, purportedly the source of about one quarter of the most ancient Germanic vocabulary. There are similar arguments for a Sanskrit substrate, and a Greek one.
Typically, Creole languages have multiple substrata, with the actual influence of such languages being indeterminate.
A superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When one language succeeds another, linguists label the succeeding language a superstratum and the earlier language a substratum.
A superstrate may also represent an imposed linguistic element akin to what occurred with English and Norman after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when use of the English language carried low prestige. The international scientific vocabulary coinages from Greek and Latin roots adopted by European languages (and subsequently by other languages) to describe scientific topics (sociology, zoology, philosophy, botany, medicine, all "-logy" words, etc.) can also be termed a superstratum, although for this last case, "adstratum" might be a better designation (despite the prestige of science and of its language). In the case of French, for example, Latin is the superstrate and Gaulish the substrate.
Some linguists contend that Japanese consists of an Altaic superstratum projected onto an Austronesian substratum.[2] Some scholars also argue for the existence of Altaic superstrate influences on varieties of Chinese spoken in Northern China. In this case, however, the superstratum refers to influence, not language succession. Alternate views detect substrate effects.[3]
An adstratum (plural: adstrata) or adstrate is a language which through its prestige is a source of lexical borrowings to another. Generally, the term is used about languages in particular geolinguistic or geopolitical contexts. For example, early in England's history, Norse contributed an adstrate to the lexical structure of Old English.[4]
The phenomenon is less common today in standardized linguistic varieties and more common in colloquial forms of speech since modern nations tend to favour one single linguistic variety (often corresponding to the dialect of the capital) over others. In India, where dozens of languages are widespread, many languages could be said to share an adstratal relationship, but Hindi is certainly a dominant adstrate in North India. A different example would be the sociolinguistic situation in Belgium, where the French and Dutch languages have roughly the same status, and could justifiably be called adstrates to each other having each one provided a remarkable set of lexical specifications to the other.
The term is also used to identify systematic influences or a layer of borrowings in a given language from another language independently of whether the two languages continue coexisting as separate entities. Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from English due to the economic preponderance of the United States on international markets. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages (including English and now languages worldwide) to describe scientific topics (sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-logy' words, etc.) are also justifiably called adstrata. Another example is found in Spanish and Portuguese, which contain a heavy Semitic (particularly Arabic) adstratum; and Yiddish which is a linguistic variety of High German with adstrata from Hebrew and Aramaic mostly in the sphere of religion, and Slavic languages by reason of the geopolitical contexts Yiddish speaking villages lived through for centuries before disappearing during the Holocaust.
| Area | Resultant language | Substrate | Superstrate | Superstrate introduced by |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eastern Mediterranean | Levantine Arabic | Western Aramaic language, Phoenician language | Classical Arabic | Arabs during the Muslim conquests |
| Egypt | Egyptian Arabic | Coptic language | ||
| Iran | Khuzestani Arabic | Persian | ||
| Mesopotamia (Iraq), northwest Syria, southeastern Turkey/western Armenia, and southwestern Iran | Mesopotamian Arabic | Aramaic, Akkadian, Sumerian, Kurdish, Persian | ||
| Maghreb (North Africa) | Algerian, Libyan, Moroccan, and Tunisian Arabic | Berber languages, Punic language, and Vulgar Latin | ||
| Ethiopia | Amharic and Ge'ez language | Central Cushitic languages | South Semitic languages | Bronze Age Semitic expansion |
| Eritrea/Ethiopia | Tigrinya | Central Cushitic and North Cushitic languages | ||
| England | English language | Common Brittonic (from pre-Roman natives of England) and British Latin (from Romans) | Anglo-Saxon language | Germanic peoples during migration period |
| Iceland | Icelandic language | Gaelic language (brought by Irish slaves) | Old Norse language | |
| Ireland | Irish English | Irish (Gaelic) | Early Modern English | the English during the Plantations of Ireland in the 16th century |
| Scotland | Scottish English | Scots and Scottish Gaelic languages | the English during Scottish Reformation in the 16th century | |
| Sápmi (Lapland) | Sami languages | Local Paleo-European languages | Early Proto-Finnic | |
| Singapore | Singaporean Mandarin | Southern Chinese varieties: Min Nan, Teochew, Cantonese, Hainanese | Standard Mandarin | Singapore Government during the Speak Mandarin Campaign |
| Italy | Italian | Italic languages | Vulgar Latin, later Ostrogothic and Lombardic languages | Romans during the Roman Empire, later various Germanic peoples during the Migration Period |
| France | French | Gaulish | Vulgar Latin, later Old Frankish[5] | |
| Portugal | Portuguese | Gallaecian and Lusitanian languages | Vulgar Latin, later Visigothic | |
| Spain | Spanish | Paleohispanic languages (including especially Basque and Celtiberian languages) | Vulgar Latin, later Visigothic | |
| Andalusia | Andalusian Spanish | Mozarabic, later Arabic (Andalusi Arabic which was based on Classical Arabic) | Spanish of the advance of the Reconquista | Castilians during the advance of the Reconquista |
| Canary Islands | Canarian Spanish | Amazigh | Andalusian Spanish in the incorporation of the Canary Islands into the Crown of Castile | Andalusians during the incorporation of the Canary Islands into the Crown of Castile |
| Mexico | Mexican Spanish | Nahuatl and Mayan languages, and other languages local to the area (Zapotec language, Mixtec language, etc.) | Spanish of the 15th century | Spaniards during the Spanish Conquest of the 15th century |
| Caribbean Spanish | Cuban, Dominican, and Puerto Rican Spanish | Taíno language of the natives and African languages brought by African slaves | ||
| Chile | Chilean Spanish | German, Mapudungun, Quechua and Aymara languages | ||
| Colombia | Colombian Spanish | Chibchan, Arawak and Cariban languages | ||
| Venezuela | Venezuelan Spanish | Wayuu, Warao, Pemon, Mapoyo, Panare, Puinave, Pémono, Sapé, Sikiana, Yabarana, and Yaruro languages | ||
| Paraguay | Paraguayan Spanish | Guaraní language | ||
| Central Andes | Andean Spanish | Quechua language, Aymara language | ||
| Río de la Plata | Rioplatense Spanish | Italian language, German language, Quechua language and Guaraní language | ||
| Philippines | Chavacano | Tagalog, Ilokano, Hiligaynon, Cebuano, Bangingi, Sama, Tausug, Yakan, and Malay | ||
| Brazil | Brazilian Portuguese | Tupi languages, African languages, Italian language, Spanish language, Japanese language | Portuguese of the 15th century | the Portuguese during the colonial period |
| Angola | Angolan Portuguese | Umbundu, Kimbundu, and Kikongo | Portuguese of the 15th century | the Portuguese during the colonial rule in Africa |
| Mozambique | Mozambican Portuguese | Swahili, Makhuwa, Sena, Ndau, Shangaan (Tsonga), Lomwe, Makonde, Chopi, Chuwabu, Ronga, Kimwani, Zulu, and Tswa | ||
| Romania | Romanian | Dacian language | Vulgar Latin, later Slavic languages, Hungarian language, German language, Turkish language | Romans during the Roman Empire, later various tribes (Goths, Huns, Slavic peoples) during the Migration Period |
| Jamaica | Jamaican Patois | African languages of transported African slaves | Early Modern English | the English during the British Empire |
| New Zealand | New Zealand English | Maori language | ||
| India | Indian English | various language substrates from Indian languages, especially Hindi | Early Modern English | |
| Israel | Standard Modern Israeli Hebrew | Mishnaic Hebrew, Old Aramaic, Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Akkadian, Persian, Greek, Yiddish, Judeo-Arabic | Biblical Hebrew | Jewish emigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries |
| Austria | Austrian German | Austro-Bavarian | Standard German | Empress Maria Theresa upon adoption of Gottsched's Standard German in the late 18th century |
| Switzerland | Swiss Standard German | Alemannic | Adoption of Standard German by the reforms of the Zürich Bible in 1665 and 1755 |
|
| Ukraine | Ukrainian Russian | Ukrainian | Russian | Russian rule |
| Shetland and Orkney | Insular Scots | Norn | Scots | Acquisition by Scotland in the 15th century |
| Norway | Bokmål | Old Norwegian | Danish | Union with Danish crown, 1380–1814. |
| Area | Resultant language | Substrate | Superstrate | Superstrate introduced by |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| France | Old French | Low Latin | Old Frankish | Merovingians' dominance of Gaul around 500 |
| England | Middle English | Old English | Old French | Normans during the Norman conquest |
| Norway | Nynorsk | Old Norwegian | Danish | Union with Danish crown, 1380–1814. |
| Look up stratum, substratum, substrate, superstratum, or superstrate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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| リンク元 | 「基層」「substrata」 |