関: NaNO

WordNet

a silvery soft waxy metallic element of the alkali metal group; occurs abundantly in natural compounds (especially in salt water); burns with a yellow flame and reacts violently in water; occurs in sea water and in the mineral halite (rock salt) (同)Na, atomic number 11
the radical -NO2 or any compound containing it (such as a salt or ester of nitrous acid)

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ソジウム,ナトリウム(金属元素;化学記号はNa)
亜硝酸塩

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/08/31 19:25:27」(JST)

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Not to be confused with sodium nitrate.

Sodium nitrite is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaNO₂. It is a white to slight yellowish crystalline powder that is very soluble in water and is hygroscopic. It is a useful precursor to a variety of organic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, and pesticides, but it is probably best known as a food additive to prevent botulism.

1 Production
2 Chemical reactions
3 Uses
- 3.1 Industrial chemistry
- 3.2 Medicine
- 3.3 Food additive
  - 3.3.1 Inhibition of microbial growth
  - 3.3.2 Taste and color
  - 3.3.3 Inhibition of lipid oxidation
4 Toxicity
- 4.1 Humane toxin for feral hogs/wild boar control
- 4.2 Nitrosamines
  - 4.2.1 Mechanism of action
5 References
6 External links

Production[edit source | edit]

The salt is prepared by treating sodium hydroxide with mixtures of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide:

2 NaOH + NO₂ + NO → 2 NaNO₂ + H₂O

The conversion is sensitive to the presence of oxygen, which can lead to varying amounts of sodium nitrate.

In former times, sodium nitrite was prepared by reduction of sodium nitrate with various metals.^[2]

Chemical reactions[edit source | edit]

In the laboratory, sodium nitrite can be used to destroy excess sodium azide.^[3]^[4]

2 NaN₃ + 2 Na NO₂ + 2 H⁺ → 3 N₂ + 2 NO + 2 Na⁺ + 2 H₂O

At high temperatures, sodium nitrite decomposes to sodium oxide, nitrogen(II) oxide and oxygen.

Uses[edit source | edit]

Industrial chemistry[edit source | edit]

The main use of sodium nitrite is for the industrial production of organonitrogen compounds. It is a reagent for conversion of amines into diazo compounds, which are key precursors to many dyes, such as diazo dyes. Nitroso compounds are produced from nitrites. These are used in the rubber industry.^[2]

Other applications include uses in photography. It may also be used as an electrolyte in electrochemical grinding manufacturing processes, typically diluted to about 10% concentration in water. It is used in a variety of metallurgical applications, for phosphatizing and detinning.

Sodium nitrite is an effective corrosion inhibitor and is used as an additive in industrial greases,^[5] as an aqueous solution in closed loop cooling systems, and in a molten state as a heat transfer medium.^[6]

Medicine[edit source | edit]

Sodium nitrite can be used as part of an intravenous mixture to treat cyanide poisoning. However it has now been made obsolete by hydroxocobalamin if this newer medicine is available.

There is also research to investigate its applicability towards treatments for heart attacks, brain aneurysms, pulmonary hypertension in infants, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections.^[7]^[8]

Food additive[edit source | edit]

In the early 1900s, irregular curing was commonplace. This led to further research surrounding the use of sodium nitrite as an additive in food, standardizing the amount present in foods to minimize the amount needed while maximizing its food additive role.^[9] Through this research, sodium nitrite has been found to inhibit growth of disease-causing microorganisms; give taste and color to the meat; and inhibit lipid oxidation that leads to rancidity.^[9] The ability of sodium nitrite to address the above mentioned issues has led to production of meat with improved food safety, extended storage life and improving desirable color/taste.^[9] In the European Union it may be used only as a mixture with salt containing at most 0.6% sodium nitrite. It has the E number E250. Potassium nitrite (E249) is used in the same way. It is approved for usage in the EU,^[10] USA^[11] and Australia and New Zealand.^[12]

Inhibition of microbial growth[edit source | edit]

Sodium nitrite is well known for its role in inhibiting the growth of Clostridium botulinum spores in refrigerated meats.^[13] The mechanism for this activity results from the inhibition of iron-sulfur clusters essential to energy metabolism of Clostridium botulinum.^[13] However, sodium nitrite has had varying degrees of effectiveness for controlling growth of other spoilage or disease causing microorganisms.^[9] Even though the inhibitory mechanisms for sodium nitrite are not well known, its effectiveness depends on several factors including residual nitrite level, pH, salt concentration, reductants present and iron content.^[14] Furthermore, the type of bacteria also affects sodium nitrites effectiveness.^[14] It is generally agreed upon that sodium nitrite is not considered effective for controlling gram-negative enteric pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli.^[14]

Taste and color[edit source | edit]

The appearance and taste of meat is an important component of consumer acceptance.^[9] Sodium nitrite is responsible for the desirable red color (or shaded pink) of meat.^[9] Very little nitrite is needed to induce this change.^[9] Its been reported that as little as 2 to 14 parts per million (ppm), is needed to induce this desirable color change.^[14] However, in order to extend the life-span of this color change significantly higher levels are needed.^[14] The mechanism responsible for this color change is by formation of nitrosylating agents by nitrite, which has the ability to transfer nitric oxide that subsequently reacts with myoglobin to produce the cured meat color.^[14] The unique taste associated with meat cured is also affected by the addition of sodium nitrite.^[9] However, the mechanism underlying this change in taste is still not fully understood.^[14]

Inhibition of lipid oxidation[edit source | edit]

Sodium nitrite is also able to effectively delay the development of oxidative rancidity.^[14] Lipid oxidation is considered to be a major reason for the deterioration of quality of meat products (rancidity and unappetizing flavors).^[14] Sodium nitrite acts as an antioxidant in a mechanism similar to the one responsible for the coloring affect.^[14] Nitrite reacts with heme proteins and metal ions, chelating free radicals by nitric oxide (one of its byproducts).^[14] Chelation of these free radicals terminates the cycle of lipid oxidation that leads to rancidity.^[14]

Toxicity[edit source | edit]

While this chemical will prevent the growth of bacteria, it can be toxic in high amounts for animals, including humans. Sodium nitrite's LD₅₀ in rats is 180 mg/kg and its human LD_Lo is 71 mg/kg, meaning a 65 kg person would likely have to consume at least 4.615 g to result in death.^[15] To prevent toxicity, sodium nitrite (blended with salt) sold as a food additive is dyed bright pink to avoid mistaking it for plain salt or sugar. Nitrites are a normal part of human diet, found in most vegetables.^[16]^[17]^[18] Nitrite levels in 34 vegetable samples, including different varieties of cabbage, lettuce, spinach, parsley and turnips ranged between 1.1 and 57 mg/kg, e.g. white cauliflower (3.49 mg/kg) and green cauliflower (1.47 mg/kg).^[16]^[19] Boiling vegetables lowers nitrate but not nitrite.^[16] Fresh meat contains 0.4-0.5 mg/kg nitrite and 4–7 mg/kg of nitrate (10–30 mg/kg nitrate in cured meats).^[18] The presence of nitrite in animal tissue is a consequence of metabolism of nitric oxide, an important neurotransmitter.^[20] Nitric oxide can be created de novo from nitric oxide synthase utilizing arginine or from ingested nitrate or nitrite.^[21] Most research on the negative effects of nitrites on humans predates the discovery of nitric oxide's importance to human metabolism and human endogenous metabolism of nitrite.^{[citation needed]}

Humane toxin for feral hogs/wild boar control[edit source | edit]

Because of sodium nitrite's high level of toxicity to swine (Sus scrofa) it is now being developed in Australia to control feral pigs and wild boar.^[22]^[23] The sodium nitrite induces methemoglobinemia in swine, i.e., it reduces the amount of oxygen that is released from hemoglobin, so the animal will feel faint and pass out, and then die in a humane manner after first being rendered unconscious.^[24]

Nitrosamines[edit source | edit]

A principal concern about sodium nitrite is the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines in meats containing sodium nitrite when meat is charred or overcooked. Such carcinogenic nitrosamines can also be formed from the reaction of nitrite with secondary amines under acidic conditions (such as occurs in the human stomach) as well as during the curing process used to preserve meats. Dietary sources of nitrosamines include US cured meats preserved with sodium nitrite as well as the dried salted fish eaten in Japan. In the 1920s, a significant change in US meat curing practices resulted in a 69% decrease in average nitrite content. This event preceded the beginning of a dramatic decline in gastric cancer mortality.^[25] About 1970, it was found that ascorbic acid (vitamin C), an antioxidant, inhibits nitrosamine formation.^[26] Consequently, the addition of at least 550 ppm of ascorbic acid is required in meats manufactured in the United States. Manufacturers sometimes instead use erythorbic acid, a cheaper but equally effective isomer of ascorbic acid. Additionally, manufacturers may include alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) to further inhibit nitrosamine production. Alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and erythorbic acid all inhibit nitrosamine production by their oxidation-reduction properties. Ascorbic acid, for example, forms dehydroascorbic acid when oxidized, which when in the presence of nitrous anhydride, a potent nitrosating agent formed from sodium nitrate, reduces the nitrous anhydride into nitric oxide.^[27] Note that nitrous anhydride does not exist in vitro.^[28]

Sodium nitrite consumption has also been linked to the triggering of migraines in individuals who already suffer from them.^[29]

One study has found a correlation between highly frequent ingestion of meats cured with pink salt and the COPD form of lung disease. The study's researchers suggest that the high amount of nitrites in the meats was responsible; however, the team did not prove the nitrite theory. Additionally, the study does not prove that nitrites or cured meat caused higher rates of COPD, merely a link. The researchers did adjust for many of COPD's risk factors, but they commented they cannot rule out all possible unmeasurable causes or risks for COPD.^[30]^[31]

Mechanism of action[edit source | edit]

Carcinogenic nitrosamines are formed when amines that occur naturally in food react with sodium nitrite found in cured meat products.

R₂NH (amines) + NaNO₂ (sodium nitrite) → R₂N-N=O (nitrosamine)

In the presence of acid (such as in the stomach) or heat (such as via cooking), nitrosamines are converted to diazonium ions.

R₂N-N=O (nitrosamine) + (acid or heat) → R-N₂⁺ (diazonium ion)

Certain nitrosamines such as N-nitrosodimethylamine^[32] and N-nitrosopyrrolidine^[33] form carbocations that react with biological nucleophiles (such as DNA or an enzyme) in the cell.

R-N₂⁺ (diazonium ion) → R⁺ (carbocation) + N₂ (leaving group) + :Nu (biological nucleophiles) → R-Nu

If this nucleophilic substitution reaction occurs at a crucial site in a biomolecule, it can disrupt normal cell functioning leading to cancer or cell death.

References[edit source | edit]

^ Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles 6th Ed. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. A23. ISBN 0-618-94690-X.
^ ^a ^b Wolfgang Laue, Michael Thiemann, Erich Scheibler, Karl Wilhelm Wiegand “Nitrates and Nitrites” in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_265. Article Online Posting Date: 15 June 2000
^ "Sodium Azide". Hazardous Waste Management. Northeastern University. March 2003.
^ Committee on Prudent Practices for Handling, Storage, and Disposal of Chemicals in Laboratories, Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, National Research Council. (1995). Prudent practices in the laboratory: handling and disposal of chemicals. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-05229-7.
^ Krakhmalev, S. I.; V. A. Vorotnikova, N. V. Ten and N. V. Taranova (1984). "Determination of sodium nitrite in complex sodium grease". Chemistry And Technology Of Fuels And Oils 20 (12): 612–613. doi:10.1007/BF00726438.
^ "Sodium Nitrite". General Chemical. Retrieved 9/28/2012.
^ "Hot dog preservative could be disease cure". USA Today. Associated Press. 9/5/2005.
^ Roxanne Khamsi (27 January 2006). "Food preservative fights cystic fibrosis complication". NewScientist.com.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Sindelar, Jeffrey; Andrew Milkowski (March 2012). "Human safety controversies surrounding nitrate and nitrite in the diet". Nitric Oxide. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2012.03.011. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
^ UK Food Standards Agency: "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers". Retrieved 27 October 2011.
^ US Food and Drug Administration: "Listing of Food Additives Status Part II". Retrieved 27 October 2011.
^ Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code"Standard 1.2.4 - Labelling of ingredients". Retrieved 27 October 2011.
^ ^a ^b Milkowski, Andrew; Harsha Garg, James Couglin, Nathan Bryan (January 2010). "Nutritional epidemiology in the context of nitric oxide biology: Risk-Benefit evaluation for dietary nitrite and nitrate". Nitric Oxide 22: 110–119. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2009.08.004. PMID 19748594.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Sindelar, Jeffrey; Andrew Milkowski (November 2011). "Sodium Nitrite in Processed Meat and Poultry Meats: A Review of Curing and Examining the Risk/Benefit of Its Use". American Meat Science Association 3: 1–14.
^ http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/SO/sodium_nitrite.html
^ ^a ^b ^c Leszczyńska, Teresa; Filipiak-Florkiewicz, Agnieszka; Cieślik, Ewa; Sikora, ElżBieta; Pisulewski, Paweł M. (2009). "Effects of some processing methods on nitrate and nitrite changes in cruciferous vegetables". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 22 (4): 315. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2008.10.025.
^ http://www.wholesomebabyfood.com/nitratearticle.htm
^ ^a ^b Dennis, M J; Wilson, L A (2003). "NITRATES AND NITRITES". Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. p. 4136. doi:10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00830-0. ISBN 978-0-12-227055-0.
^ Correia, Manuela; Barroso, ÂNgela; Barroso, M. FáTima; Soares, DéBora; Oliveira, M.B.P.P.; Delerue-Matos, Cristina (2010). "Contribution of different vegetable types to exogenous nitrate and nitrite exposure". Food Chemistry 120 (4): 960. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.030.
^ Meulemans, A.; Delsenne, F. (1994). "Measurement of nitrite and nitrate levels in biological samples by capillary electrophoresis". Journal of Chromatography B 660 (2): 401. doi:10.1016/0378-4347(94)00310-6.
^ Southan, G; Srinivasan, A (1998). "Nitrogen Oxides and Hydroxyguanidines: Formation of Donors of Nitric and Nitrous Oxides and Possible Relevance to Nitrous Oxide Formation by Nitric Oxide Synthase". Nitric Oxide 2 (4): 270–86. doi:10.1006/niox.1998.0187. PMID 9851368.
^ Lapidge, Steven; J. Wishart, M. Smith, L. Staples (2009). "Is America Ready for a Humane Feral Pig Toxicant?". Proceedings of the 13th Wildlife Damage Management Conference: 49–59.
^ Cowled, BD; SJ Lapidge, S. Humphrys, L Staples (2008). "Nitrite Salts as Poisons in Baits for Omnivores". International Patent WO/2008/104028.
^ S. Porter & T. Kuchel (2010). Assessing the humaness and efficacy of a new feral pig bait in domestic pigs. Study PC0409. Canberra, South Australia: Veterinary Services Division, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science. p. 11.
^ "The epidemiological enigma of gastric cancer rates in the US: was grandmother's sausage the cause?", International Journal of Epidemiology (2000) accessdate 2000-08-01
^ C.W. Mackerness, S.A. Leach, M.H. Thompson and M.J. Hill (1989). "The inhibition of bacterially mediated N-nitrosation by vitamin C: relevance to the inhibition of endogenous N-nitrosation in the achlorhydric stomach". Carcinogenesis 10 (2): 397–9. doi:10.1093/carcin/10.2.397. PMID 2492212.
^ Nitrosamines and Cancer by Richard A. Scanlan, Ph.D.
^ Williams, D (2004). "Reagents effecting nitrosation". Nitrosation Reactions and the Chemistry of Nitric Oxide. p. 1. doi:10.1016/B978-044451721-0/50002-5. ISBN 978-0-444-51721-0.
^ "Heading Off Migraine Pain". FDA Consumer magazine. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1998.
^ Miranda Hitti (17 April 2007). "Study: Cured Meats, COPD May Be Linked". WebMD Medical News.
^ Jiang, R.; Paik, D. C.; Hankinson, J. L.; Barr, R. G. (2007). "Cured Meat Consumption, Lung Function, and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease among United States Adults". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 175 (8): 798–804. doi:10.1164/rccm.200607-969OC. PMC 1899290. PMID 17255565.
^ Najm, Issam; Trussell, R. Rhodes (February 2001). "NDMA Formation in Water and Wastewater". Journal AWWA 93 (2): 92–99.
^ Donald D. Bills, Kjell I. Hildrum, Richard A. Scanlan, Leonard M. Libbey (May 1973). "Potential precursors of N-nitrosopyrrolidine in bacon and other fried foods". J. Agric. Food Chem. 21 (5): 876–7. doi:10.1021/jf60189a029. PMID 4739004.

External links[edit source | edit]

ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine - Nitrate/Nitrite Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (public domain)
International Chemical Safety Card 1120.
National Center for Home Food Preservation Nitrates and Nitrites.
TR-495: Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Sodium Nitrite (CAS NO. 7632-00-0) Drinking Water Studies in F344/N Rats and B6C3F₁ Mice.
FOX news article concerning carcinogicity and hot dogs
Nitrite in Meat

UpToDate Contents

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1. シアン化物中毒 cyanide poisoning
2. 化学テロ：早急な認識および初回薬物治療マネージメント chemical terrorism rapid recognition and initial medical management
3. 食品添加物に対するアレルギー反応および喘息反応 allergic and asthmatic reactions to food additives
4. 心臓の虚血性再潅流障害 ischemic reperfusion injury of the heart
5. 新生児多血症 neonatal polycythemia

English Journal

Detection of malondialdehyde in processed meat products without interference from the ingredients.

Jung S1, Nam KC2, Jo C3.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2016 Oct 15;209:90-4. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.035. Epub 2016 Apr 13.
Our aim was to develop a method for accurate quantification of malondialdehyde (MDA) in meat products. MDA content of uncured ground pork (Control); ground pork cured with sodium nitrite (Nitrite); and ground pork cured with sodium nitrite, sodium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, maltodextrin, and a
PMID 27173538

Isolation and identification of oxidation products of syringol from brines and heated meat matrix.

Bölicke SM1, Ternes W2.
Meat science.Meat Sci.2016 Aug;118:108-16. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.03.029. Epub 2016 Apr 5.
In this study we developed new extraction and detection methods (using HPLC-UV and LC-MS), making it possible to analyze the smoke phenol syringol and its oxidation products nitrososyringol, nitrosyringol, and the syringol dimer 3,3',5,5'-tetramethoxy-1,1'-biphenyl-4,4'-diol, which were identified i
PMID 27085115

Thymoquinone ameliorated elevated inflammatory cytokines in testicular tissue and sex hormones imbalance induced by oral chronic toxicity with sodium nitrite.

Alyoussef A1, Al-Gayyar MM2.
Cytokine.Cytokine.2016 Jul;83:64-74. doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.03.018. Epub 2016 Mar 30.
Scientific evidence illustrated the health hazards of exposure to nitrites for prolonged time. Nitrites affected several body organs due to oxidative, inflammatory and apoptosis properties. Furthermore, thymoquinone (TQ) had curative effects against many diseases. We tried to discover the impact of
PMID 27038016

Japanese Journal

愛がん動物用飼料中の亜硝酸ナトリウムの分光光度計による定量法の共同試験

甲斐茂浩
飼料研究報告 36, 120-125, 2011
NAID 40018968532

野菜ジュースの窒素汚染と次亜塩素酸ナトリウムによる除去について

千田眞喜子,葛葉泰久
日本家政学会誌 62(3), 153-164, 2011
NAID 40018722494

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★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「NaNO」「亜硝酸ナトリウム」

「NaNO」

Sodium nitrite
Identifiers
CAS number	7632-00-0
PubChem	24269
ChemSpider	22689
UNII	M0KG633D4F
EC number	231-555-9
UN number	1500
ChEMBL	CHEMBL93268
RTECS number	RA1225000
ATC code	V03AB08
Jmol-3D images	Image 1
	SMILES N(=O)[O-].[Na+] ;
	InChI InChI=1S/HNO2.Na/c2-1-3;/h(H,2,3);/q;+1/p-1 ; Key: LPXPTNMVRIOKMN-UHFFFAOYSA-M InChI=1/HNO2.Na/c2-1-3;/h(H,2,3);/q;+1/p-1; Key: LPXPTNMVRIOKMN-REWHXWOFAO ;
Properties
Molecular formula	NaNO2
Molar mass	68.9953 g/mol
Appearance	white or slightly yellowish solid
Density	2.168 g/cm3
Melting point	271 °C, 544 K, 520 °F (decomposes)
Solubility in water	84.8 g/100 mL (25 °C)
Solubility	soluble in methanol (4.4 g/100 mL); ethanol; slightly soluble in diethyl ether (0.3 g/100 mL); very soluble in ammonia
Acidity (pKa)	~9
Refractive index (nD)	1.65
Structure
Crystal structure	Trigonal
Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of; formation ΔfHo298	−359 kJ·mol−1
Hazards
MSDS	External MSDS
EU Index	007-010-00-4
EU classification	O T N
R-phrases	R8, R25, R50
S-phrases	(S1/2), S45, S61
NFPA 704	0 3 1 OX
Autoignition; temperature	489 °C
LD50	180 mg/kg (rats, oral)
Related compounds
Other anions	Lithium nitrite; Sodium nitrate
Other cations	Potassium nitrite; Ammonium nitrite
	(verify) (what is: /?); Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
	Infobox references

　　[★]

亜硝酸ナトリウム

関: sodium nitrite

「亜硝酸ナトリウム」

　　[★]

英: sodium nitrite、NaNO

[b1-1] Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles 6th Ed. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. A23. ISBN 0-618-94690-X.

[Ullmann-2] Wolfgang Laue, Michael Thiemann, Erich Scheibler, Karl Wilhelm Wiegand “Nitrates and Nitrites” in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_265. Article Online Posting Date: 15 June 2000

[3] "Sodium Azide". Hazardous Waste Management. Northeastern University. March 2003.

[4] Committee on Prudent Practices for Handling, Storage, and Disposal of Chemicals in Laboratories, Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, National Research Council. (1995). Prudent practices in the laboratory: handling and disposal of chemicals. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-05229-7.

[5] Krakhmalev, S. I.; V. A. Vorotnikova, N. V. Ten and N. V. Taranova (1984). "Determination of sodium nitrite in complex sodium grease". Chemistry And Technology Of Fuels And Oils 20 (12): 612–613. doi:10.1007/BF00726438.

[6] "Sodium Nitrite". General Chemical. Retrieved 9/28/2012.

[7] "Hot dog preservative could be disease cure". USA Today. Associated Press. 9/5/2005.

[8] Roxanne Khamsi (27 January 2006). "Food preservative fights cystic fibrosis complication". NewScientist.com.

[Sindelar_Human_safety-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Sindelar, Jeffrey; Andrew Milkowski (March 2012). "Human safety controversies surrounding nitrate and nitrite in the diet". Nitric Oxide. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2012.03.011. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)

[10] UK Food Standards Agency: "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers". Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[11] US Food and Drug Administration: "Listing of Food Additives Status Part II". Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[12] Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code"Standard 1.2.4 - Labelling of ingredients". Retrieved 27 October 2011.

[Milkowski_three_nutritional_epidemiology-13] Milkowski, Andrew; Harsha Garg, James Couglin, Nathan Bryan (January 2010). "Nutritional epidemiology in the context of nitric oxide biology: Risk-Benefit evaluation for dietary nitrite and nitrate". Nitric Oxide 22: 110–119. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2009.08.004. PMID 19748594.

[Sindelar_One-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Sindelar, Jeffrey; Andrew Milkowski (November 2011). "Sodium Nitrite in Processed Meat and Poultry Meats: A Review of Curing and Examining the Risk/Benefit of Its Use". American Meat Science Association 3: 1–14.

[15] ttp://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/SO/sodium_nitrite.html

[Leszczy.C5.84ska-16] Leszczyńska, Teresa; Filipiak-Florkiewicz, Agnieszka; Cieślik, Ewa; Sikora, ElżBieta; Pisulewski, Paweł M. (2009). "Effects of some processing methods on nitrate and nitrite changes in cruciferous vegetables". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 22 (4): 315. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2008.10.025.

[17] ttp://www.wholesomebabyfood.com/nitratearticle.htm

[sciencedirect.com-18] Dennis, M J; Wilson, L A (2003). "NITRATES AND NITRITES". Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. p. 4136. doi:10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00830-0. ISBN 978-0-12-227055-0.

[19] Correia, Manuela; Barroso, ÂNgela; Barroso, M. FáTima; Soares, DéBora; Oliveira, M.B.P.P.; Delerue-Matos, Cristina (2010). "Contribution of different vegetable types to exogenous nitrate and nitrite exposure". Food Chemistry 120 (4): 960. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.030.

[20] Meulemans, A.; Delsenne, F. (1994). "Measurement of nitrite and nitrate levels in biological samples by capillary electrophoresis". Journal of Chromatography B 660 (2): 401. doi:10.1016/0378-4347(94)00310-6.

[21] Southan, G; Srinivasan, A (1998). "Nitrogen Oxides and Hydroxyguanidines: Formation of Donors of Nitric and Nitrous Oxides and Possible Relevance to Nitrous Oxide Formation by Nitric Oxide Synthase". Nitric Oxide 2 (4): 270–86. doi:10.1006/niox.1998.0187. PMID 9851368.

[22] Lapidge, Steven; J. Wishart, M. Smith, L. Staples (2009). "Is America Ready for a Humane Feral Pig Toxicant?". Proceedings of the 13th Wildlife Damage Management Conference: 49–59.

[23] Cowled, BD; SJ Lapidge, S. Humphrys, L Staples (2008). "Nitrite Salts as Poisons in Baits for Omnivores". International Patent WO/2008/104028.

[24] S. Porter & T. Kuchel (2010). Assessing the humaness and efficacy of a new feral pig bait in domestic pigs. Study PC0409. Canberra, South Australia: Veterinary Services Division, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science. p. 11.

[25] "The epidemiological enigma of gastric cancer rates in the US: was grandmother's sausage the cause?", International Journal of Epidemiology (2000) accessdate 2000-08-01

[26] C.W. Mackerness, S.A. Leach, M.H. Thompson and M.J. Hill (1989). "The inhibition of bacterially mediated N-nitrosation by vitamin C: relevance to the inhibition of endogenous N-nitrosation in the achlorhydric stomach". Carcinogenesis 10 (2): 397–9. doi:10.1093/carcin/10.2.397. PMID 2492212.

[27] Nitrosamines and Cancer by Richard A. Scanlan, Ph.D.

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sodium nitrite