セレン　　

WordNet

a toxic nonmetallic element related to sulfur and tellurium; occurs in several allotropic forms; a stable grey metallike allotrope conducts electricity better in the light than in the dark and is used in photocells; occurs in sulfide ores (as pyrite) (同)Se, atomic number 34
a photoelectric cell that uses a strip of selenium

PrepTutorEJDIC

セレン,セレニウム(非金属元素;化学記号はSe)
seleniumの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/04/26 21:56:43」(JST)

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「セレン」のその他の用法については「セレン (曖昧さ回避)」をご覧ください。

セレン（英: selenium）は原子番号34の元素。元素記号は Se。カルコゲン元素の一つ。セレニウムとも呼ばれる。

性質

いくつかの同素体が存在するが、常温で安定なのは六方晶系で鎖状構造をもつ灰色セレン（金属セレン）である。灰色セレンの融点は217.4 °C（異なる実験値あり）で、比重は4.8である。他の同素体として、赤色で単斜晶系のα, β, γセレン、ガラス状の無定形セレンなどがある。-2, 0, +2, +4, +6価の酸化状態を取り得る。水に不溶だが、二硫化炭素 (CS₂) には溶ける。また、熱濃硫酸と反応する。燃やすと不快臭のある気体（二酸化セレン）が発生する。硫黄に性質が似ている。

セレンは自然界に広く存在し、微量レベルであれば人体にとって必須元素であり、抗酸化作用（抗酸化酵素の合成に必要）があるが、必要レベルの倍程度以上で毒性があり摂取し過ぎると危険であり、水質汚濁、土壌汚染に係る環境基準指定項目となっている。これはセレンの性質が硫黄にきわめてよく似るため、高濃度のセレン中では含硫化合物中の硫黄原子が無作為にセレンに置換され、その機能を阻害されるためである。

克山（クーシャン）病（Keshan disease：中国の風土病）やカシンベック病 (Kashin-Beck disease) の原因としてセレン欠乏が考えられている。

産出

セレンを主成分とする鉱物は、銅或いは銀との化合物のセレン銀鉱やセレン銅銀鉱が知られるが、産出量の少ない鉱物で有るため鉱石として利用はされない。硫黄化合物として産出する事が多いため工業的には、硫酸製造の際の沈殿物や銅精錬時の副産物を精錬し得る。

主な産出国は、日本28%、カナダ26%、アメリカ18%などとなっている。産出量は2.15×10³トン、予想埋蔵量は70×10³トンである^[3]。

用途

金属セレンは、半導体性、光伝導性がある。これを利用してコピー機の感光ドラムに用いられる。またセレンは整流器（セレン整流器）に使われたり、光起電効果によりカメラの露出計やガラスの着色剤^[4]、脱色剤に使われる。毒性がある為、現在は使用が制限され多くの用途において代替物質が使用されている。

歴史

1817年、スウェーデンの化学者イェンス・ベルセリウス (Jöns Jakob Berzelius) によって、テルルと共に発見された。

セレンはギリシャ神話の月の女神セレネから命名されている。これは、周期表上でひとつ下に位置するテルル（ラテン語で地球を意味する Tellus から命名）より後に発見され、性質がよく似ていたためである。あるいは地球の「上」に位置するためとも言われる。

セレンのように、周期表上で並ぶ元素が天体の配置になぞらえて命名された例は、ウラン・ネプツニウム・プルトニウムにも見られる。

セレンの化合物

酸化物とオキソ酸

一酸化セレン (SeO)
二酸化セレン (SeO₂)
三酸化セレン (SeO₃)

セレンのオキソ酸は慣用名をもつ。次にそれらを挙げる。

オキソ酸の名称	化学式	オキソ酸塩の名称	備考
亜セレン酸 (selenious acid)	H₂SeO₃	亜セレン酸塩 ( - selenite)
セレン酸 (selenic acid)	H₂SeO₄	セレン酸塩 ( - selenate)	強酸である。
ペルオキソ一セレン酸 (peroxomonoselenic acid)	H₂SeO₅	ペルオキソ一セレン酸塩 ( - peroxomonoselenate)	三酸化セレンと過酸化水素から作られる。

※ オキソ酸塩名称の '-' にはカチオン種の名称が入る。

ハロゲン化物

四フッ化セレン (SeF₄)
六フッ化セレン (SeF₆)
四塩化セレン (SeCl₄)
四臭化セレン (SeBr₄)
四ヨウ化セレン (SeI₄)

有機セレン化合物

詳細は「有機セレン化合物」を参照

セレンに有機基が結合した化合物として、セレノール (RSeH)、セレニド (RSeR') など多くの種類の化合物が知られる。

鉱物

セレン銀鉱 (Ag₂Se)
セレン銅銀鉱 (CuAgSe)

その他

セレン化水素 (H₂Se)
塩化セレニニル (SeOCl₂)
セレノシステイン - アミノ酸の1種、特殊なタンパク質中に見出される
セレノメチオニン - セレノシステインとは異なりタンパク質の構造や機能には影響を与えない
セレン化亜鉛 (ZnSe) - 赤外線を透過させる光学素子として最も良く使用される光学材料

生体内のセレン

セレンはセレノシステインとしてタンパク質に組み込まれ、主にセレノプロテインとして働く。セレンはビタミンEやビタミンCと協調して、活性酸素やラジカルから生体を防御すると考えられている。

セレノプロテインには抗酸化に関与するグルタチオンペルオキシダーゼ、チオレドキシン還元酵素、甲状腺ホルモンを活性化するテトラヨードチロニン-5'-脱ヨウ素化酵素、セレンを末梢組織に輸送するセレノプロテインPなどがある。

セレンは欠乏量と中毒量の間の適正量の幅が非常に狭い。セレン過剰症として、悪心、吐き気、下痢、食欲不振、頭痛、免疫抑制、高比重リポ蛋白 (HDL) 減少などの症状がある。一方、欠乏症は貧血、高血圧、精子減少、ガン（特に前立腺ガン）、関節炎、早老、筋萎縮、多発性硬化症などが知られている。ただし、ヒトにおいて、セレン単独の欠乏では、これらの症状が認知されていない（動物実験レベルではセレン単独の欠乏症状が認められている）。

セレンは肉や植物など日常で摂取する食材に含まれており、欠乏症はさほど多くはないが、食品、特に植物性のものに含まれるセレン含量は生育する土壌中のセレン含量に左右される。そのため、セレン含量の乏しい土地の住人にセレン欠乏が見られる。そのような土地として中国黒竜江省の克山県があり、うっ血性心不全を特徴とする克山病が知られている。患者にセレンを補給することにより改善するため、セレンが深く関与すると考えられている。また、中国河南省の林県もセレン含量の低い土壌で、この土地では胃癌の発生頻度が高いことが知られているが、こちらにはニトロソ化合物が影響しているという説もある。

また、血液中のセレン濃度と前立腺ガンの相関性が指摘されており、血液中セレン濃度の低下は前立腺ガンのリスクファクターと言われる。セレンの補充は前立腺ガンのリスクを軽減するとの報告もある。ただし、取り過ぎは前立腺ガンのリスクを軽減しないどころか、皮膚がんのリスクを高めると言われる。

前述のように、ヒトではセレン単独の欠乏症状が見られない。したがって、セレン欠乏は、欠乏症の二次的な要因となると考えられている。すなわち、ビタミンEなどと協調してはたらくため、両栄養素の欠乏症状の相乗作用により現れると考えられる。また、克山病ではセレン欠乏が、コクサッキーウィルスの変異を促し、病原性の獲得および増大をもたらすと考えられている。

摂取量

人体には体重1 kgあたり、約0.17 mg程度含まれると言われ、1975年にヒトでの必須性が認められた。セレンの食事摂取基準は2005年版の日本人の食事摂取基準^[5]によると、推定平均必要量が25 (20) µg、推奨量が30 (25) µg、上限量が450 (350) µgである（数値は成人男性、かっこ内は成人女性）。ただし、30〜49歳の男性の推定平均必要量が30 µg、推奨量が35 µgとなっている。日本人の平均的なセレンの摂取量は100 µg/日とされ、中毒を起こす摂取量は800 µg以上とされている。

東京都は、日本人の摂取量は推奨量をすでに超えている為、「通常はサプリメントとして摂取する必要は無いと考えられる」。更に、「一日許摂取量が上限量に近い栄養補助食品が存在し、上限量を超える可能性がある、この様な物は栄養補助食品として販売されることが問題である」としている^[6]。

過剰摂取は健康に影響を及ぼし、次の症状を引き起こすことがある。
皮膚炎、脱毛、爪の変形、爪の脱落、顔面蒼白、末梢神経障害、舌苔、うつ状態、胃腸障害、呼気のニンニク臭、運動失調、呼吸困難、神経症状、下痢、胃腸障害、疲労感、焦燥感、心筋梗塞、腎不全など^[7]^[8]。
実際に過剰な含有量のダイエット食品を摂食し、健康被害を生じた例がある。

脚注

^ “Selenium : Selenium(I) chloride compound data”. WebElements.com. 2007年12月10日閲覧。
^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
^ 日本化学会編『第6版化学便覧応用化学編』丸善出版社 p.46
^ インドではガラスの腕輪の着色に好んで使われるインドは「自分の写し鏡」（中村繁夫（アドバンストマテリアルジャパン社長）、Wedge Infinity 2012年9月4日掲載）
^ 日本人の食事摂取基準厚生労働省
^ ミネラル補給用サプリメントの含有量調査セレンの分析東京都健康安全研究センター研究年報 2007年
^ 「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報セレン独立行政法人国立健康・栄養研究所
^ 過剰のミネラルを含むダイエタリーサプリメントについて (PDF) 東京都食品安全情報評価委員会

外部リンク

セレン及びその化合物独立行政法人製品評価技術基盤機構化学物質管理センター
セレン解説 -「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報（国立健康・栄養研究所）
セレン -「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報（国立健康・栄養研究所）

wiki en

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Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between those of its periodic table column-adjacent chalcogen elements sulfur and tellurium. It rarely occurs in its elemental state in nature, or as pure ore compounds. Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously known tellurium (named for the Earth).

Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores, where it partially replaces the sulfur. Commercially, selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores, most often during production. Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known, but are rare. The chief commercial uses for selenium today are in glassmaking and in pigments. Selenium is a semiconductor and is used in photocells. Uses in electronics, once important, have been mostly supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices. Selenium continues to be used in a few types of DC power surge protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot.

Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms, including all animals. Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other dietary supplements, including infant formula. It is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants). It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes, which convert one thyroid hormone to another. Selenium requirements in plants differ by species, with some plants requiring relatively large amounts, and others apparently requiring none.^[4]

1 Characteristics
- 1.1 Physical properties
- 1.2 Isotopes
2 Chemical compounds
- 2.1 Chalcogen compounds
- 2.2 Halogen compounds
- 2.3 Selenides
- 2.4 Other compounds
- 2.5 Organoselenium compounds
3 History
4 Occurrence
5 Production
6 Applications
- 6.1 Manganese electrolysis
- 6.2 Glass production
- 6.3 Alloys
  - 6.3.1 Solar cells
- 6.4 Other uses
7 Biological role
- 7.1 Evolution in biology
- 7.2 Nutritional sources of selenium
- 7.3 Indicator plant species
- 7.4 Medical use
- 7.5 Detection in biological fluids
- 7.6 Toxicity
- 7.7 Deficiency
- 7.8 Controversial health effects
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

Characteristics

Physical properties

Structure of hexagonal (gray) selenium

Selenium exists in several allotropes that interconvert upon heating and cooling carried out at different temperatures and rates. As prepared in chemical reactions, selenium is usually an amorphous, brick-red powder. When rapidly melted, it forms the black, vitreous form, which is usually sold industrially as beads.^[5] The structure of black selenium is irregular and complex and consists of polymeric rings with up to 1000 atoms per ring. Black Se is a brittle, lustrous solid that is slightly soluble in CS₂. Upon heating, it softens at 50 °C and converts to gray selenium at 180 °C; the transformation temperature is reduced by presence of halogens and amines.^[6]

The red α, β, and γ forms are produced from solutions of black selenium by varying evaporation rates of the solvent (usually CS₂). They all have relatively low, monoclinic crystal symmetries and contain nearly identical puckered Se₈ rings arranged in different fashions, as in sulfur. The packing is most dense in the α form. In the Se₈ rings, the Se-Se distance is 233.5 pm and Se-Se-Se angle is 105.7°. Other selenium allotropes may contain Se₆ or Se₇ rings.^[6]

The most stable and dense form of selenium is gray and has a hexagonal crystal lattice consisting of helical polymeric chains, where the Se-Se distance is 237.3 pm and Se-Se-Se angle is 130.1°. The minimum distance between chains is 343.6 pm. Gray Se is formed by mild heating of other allotropes, by slow cooling of molten Se, or by condensing Se vapor just below the melting point. Whereas other Se forms are insulators, gray Se is a semiconductor showing appreciable photoconductivity. Unlike the other allotropes, it is insoluble in CS₂.^[6] It resists oxidation by air and is not attacked by nonoxidizing acids. With strong reducing agents, it forms polyselenides. Selenium does not exhibit the unusual changes in viscosity that sulfur undergoes when gradually heated.^[5]^[7]

Isotopes

Selenium has six naturally occurring isotopes, five of which are stable: ⁷⁴Se, ⁷⁶Se, ⁷⁷Se, ⁷⁸Se, and ⁸⁰Se. The last three also occur as fission products, along with ⁷⁹Se, which has a half-life of 327,000 years.^[8]^[9] The final naturally occurring isotope, ⁸²Se, has a very long half-life (~10²⁰ yr, decaying via double beta decay to ⁸²Kr), which, for practical purposes, can be considered to be stable. Twenty-three other unstable isotopes have been characterized.^[10]

See also Selenium-79 for more information on recent changes in the measured half-life of this long-lived fission product, important for the dose calculations performed in the frame of the geological disposal of long-lived radioactive waste.^[10]

Chemical compounds

Selenium compounds commonly exist in the oxidation states −2, +2, +4, and +6.

Chalcogen compounds

Selenium forms two oxides: selenium dioxide (SeO₂) and selenium trioxide (SeO₃). Selenium dioxide is formed by the reaction of elemental selenium with oxygen:^[5]

Se₈ + 8 O₂ → 8 SeO₂

Structure of the polymer SeO₂: The (pyramidal) Se atoms are yellow.

It is a polymeric solid that forms monomeric SeO₂ molecules in the gas phase. It dissolves in water to form selenous acid, H₂SeO₃. Selenous acid can also be made directly by oxidizing elemental selenium with nitric acid:^[11]

3 Se + 4 HNO₃ + H₂O → 3 H₂SeO₃ + 4 NO

Unlike sulfur, which forms a stable trioxide, selenium trioxide is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to the dioxide above 185 °C:^[5]^[11]

2 SeO₃ → 2 SeO₂ + O₂ (ΔH = −54 kJ/mol)

Selenium trioxide is produced in the laboratory by the reaction of anhydrous potassium selenate (K₂SeO₄) and sulfur trioxide (SO₃).^[12]

Salts of selenous acid are called selenites. These include silver selenite (Ag₂SeO₃) and sodium selenite (Na₂SeO₃).

Hydrogen sulfide reacts with aqueous selenous acid to produce selenium disulfide:

H₂SeO₃ + 2 H₂S → SeS₂ + 3 H₂O

Selenium disulfide consists of 8-membered rings of a nearly statistical distribution of sulfur and selenium atoms. It has an approximate composition of SeS₂, with individual rings varying in composition, such as Se₄S₄ and Se₂S₆. Selenium disulfide has been used in shampoo as an antidandruff agent, an inhibitor in polymer chemistry, a glass dye, and a reducing agent in fireworks.^[11]

Selenium trioxide may be synthesized by dehydrating selenic acid, H₂SeO₄, which is itself produced by the oxidation of selenium dioxide with hydrogen peroxide:^[13]

SeO₂ + H₂O₂ → H₂SeO₄

Hot, concentrated selenic acid is capable of dissolving gold, forming gold(III) selenate.^[14]

Halogen compounds

Iodides of selenium are not well known. The only stable chloride is selenium monochloride (Se₂Cl₂), which might be better known as selenium(I) chloride; the corresponding bromide is also known. These species are structurally analogous to the corresponding disulfur dichloride. Selenium dichloride is an important reagent in the preparation of selenium compounds (e.g. the preparation of Se₇). It is prepared by treating selenium with sulfuryl chloride (SO₂Cl₂).^[15] Selenium reacts with fluorine to form selenium hexafluoride:

Se₈ + 24 F₂ → 8 SeF₆

In comparison with its sulfur counterpart (sulfur hexafluoride), selenium hexafluoride (SeF₆) is more reactive and is a toxic pulmonary irritant.^[16] Some of the selenium oxyhalides, such as selenium oxyfluoride (SeOF₂) and selenium oxychloride (SeOCl₂) have been used as specialty solvents.^[5]

Selenides

Analogous to the behavior of other chalcogens, selenium forms a dihydride H₂Se. It is a strongly odiferous, toxic, and colorless gas. It is more acidic than H₂S. In solution it ionizes to HSe⁻. The selenide dianion Se²⁻ forms a variety of compounds, including the minerals from which selenium is obtained commercially. Illustrative selenides include mercury selenide (HgSe), lead selenide (PbSe), zinc selenide (ZnSe), and copper indium gallium diselenide (Cu(Ga,In)Se₂). These materials are semiconductors. With highly electropositive metals, such as aluminium, these selenides are prone to hydrolysis:^[5]

Al₂Se₃ + 6 H₂O → Al₂O₃ + 6 H₂Se

Alkali metal selenides react with selenium to form polyselenides, Se2−
n, which exist as chains.

Other compounds

Tetraselenium tetranitride, Se₄N₄, is an explosive orange compound analogous to tetrasulfur tetranitride (S₄N₄).^[5]^[17]^[18] It can be synthesized by the reaction of selenium tetrachloride (SeCl₄) with [((CH
3)
3Si)
2N]
2Se.^[19]

Selenium reacts with cyanides to yield selenocyanates:^[5]

8 KCN + Se₈ → 8 KSeCN

Organoselenium compounds

Selenium, especially in the II oxidation state, forms stable bonds to carbon, which are structurally analogous to the corresponding organosulfur compounds. Especially common are selenides (R₂Se, analogues of thioethers), diselenides (R₂Se₂, analogues of disulfides), and selenols (RSeH, analogues of thiols). Representatives of selenides, diselenides, and selenols include respectively selenomethionine, diphenyldiselenide, and benzeneselenol. The sulfoxide in sulfur chemistry is represented in selenium chemistry by the selenoxides (formula RSe(O)R), which are intermediates in organic synthesis, as illustrated by the selenoxide elimination reaction. Consistent with trends indicated by the double bond rule, selenoketones, R(C=Se)R, and selenaldehydes, R(C=Se)H, are rarely observed.^[20]

History

Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Johan Gottlieb Gahn.^[21] Both chemists owned a chemistry plant near Gripsholm, Sweden, producing sulfuric acid by the lead chamber process. The pyrite from the Falun mine created a red precipitate in the lead chambers which was presumed to be an arsenic compound, so the pyrite's use to make acid was discontinued. Berzelius and Gahn wanted to use the pyrite and they also observed that the red precipitate gave off a smell like horseradish when burned. This smell was not typical of arsenic, but a similar odor was known from tellurium compounds. Hence, Berzelius's first letter to Alexander Marcet stated that this was a tellurium compound. However, the lack of tellurium compounds in the Falun mine minerals eventually led Berzelius to reanalyze the red precipitate, and in 1818 he wrote a second letter to Marcet describing a newly found element similar to sulfur and tellurium. Because of its similarity to tellurium, named for the Earth, Berzelius named the new element after the Moon.^[22]^[23]

In 1873, Willoughby Smith found that the electrical resistance of grey selenium was dependent on the ambient light. This led to its use as a cell for sensing light. The first commercial products using selenium were developed by Werner Siemens in the mid-1870s. The selenium cell was used in the photophone developed by Alexander Graham Bell in 1879. Selenium transmits an electric current proportional to the amount of light falling on its surface. This phenomenon was used in the design of light meters and similar devices. Selenium's semiconductor properties found numerous other applications in electronics.^[24]^[25]^[26] The development of selenium rectifiers began during the early 1930s, and these replaced copper oxide rectifiers because of their superior efficiencies.^[27]^[28]^[29] These lasted in commercial applications until the 1970s, following which they were replaced with less expensive and even more efficient silicon rectifiers.

Selenium came to medical notice later because of its toxicity to human beings working in industries. Selenium was also recognized as an important veterinary toxin, which is seen in animals that have eaten high-selenium plants. In 1954, the first hints of specific biological functions of selenium were discovered in microorganisms.^[30]^[31] Its essentiality for mammalian life was discovered in 1957.^[32]^[33] In the 1970s, it was shown to be present in two independent sets of enzymes. This was followed by the discovery of selenocysteine in proteins. During the 1980s, selenocysteine was shown to be encoded by the codon UGA. The recoding mechanism was worked out first in bacteria and then in mammals (see SECIS element).^[34]

Occurrence

Native selenium in sandstone, from a uranium mine near Grants, New Mexico

Native (i.e., elemental) selenium is a rare mineral, which does not usually form good crystals, but, when it does, they are steep rhombohedra or tiny acicular (hair-like) crystals.^[35] Isolation of selenium is often complicated by the presence of other compounds and elements.

Selenium occurs naturally in a number of inorganic forms, including selenide-, selenate-, and selenite-containing minerals, but these minerals are rare. The common mineral selenite is not a selenium mineral, and contains no selenite ion, but is rather a type of gypsum (calcium sulfate hydrate) named like selenium for the moon well before the discovery of selenium. Selenium is most commonly found quite impurely, replacing a small part of the sulfur in sulfide ores of many metals.^[36]^[37]

In living systems, selenium is found in the amino acids selenomethionine, selenocysteine, and methylselenocysteine. In these compounds, selenium plays a role analogous to that of sulfur. Another naturally occurring organoselenium compound is dimethyl selenide.^[38]^[39]

Certain solids are selenium-rich, and selenium can be bioconcentrated by certain plants. In soils, selenium most often occurs in soluble forms such as selenate (analogous to sulfate), which are leached into rivers very easily by runoff.^[36]^[37] Ocean water contains significant amounts of selenium.^[40]^[41]

Anthropogenic sources of selenium include coal burning and the mining and smelting of sulfide ores.^[42]

Production

Selenium is most commonly produced from selenide in many sulfide ores, such as those of copper, nickel, or lead. Electrolytic metal refining is particularly conducive to producing selenium as a byproduct, and it is obtained from the anode mud of copper refineries. Another source was the mud from the lead chambers of sulfuric acid plants but this method to produce sulfuric acid is no longer used. These muds can be processed by a number of means to obtain selenium. However, most elemental selenium comes as a byproduct of refining copper or producing sulfuric acid.^[43]^[44] Since the invention of solvent extraction and electrowinning (SX/EW) for the production of copper this method takes an increasing share of the worldwide copper production.^[45] This changes the availability of selenium because only a comparably small part of the selenium in the ore is leached together with the copper.^[46]

Industrial production of selenium usually involves the extraction of selenium dioxide from residues obtained during the purification of copper. Common production from the residue then begins by oxidation with sodium carbonate to produce selenium dioxide. The selenium dioxide is then mixed with water and the solution is acidified to form selenous acid (oxidation step). Selenous acid is bubbled with sulfur dioxide (reduction step) to give elemental selenium.^[47]^[48]

About 2,000 tonnes of selenium were produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in Germany (650 t), Japan (630 t), Belgium (200 t), and Russia (140 t), and the total reserves were estimated at 93,000 tonnes. These data however exclude two major producers, the United States and China. The price was relatively stable during 2004–2010 at about US$30 per pound (per 100-pound lot) but increased to $65 /lb in 2011. A previous sharp increase was observed in 2004 from 4–5 to $27/lb. The consumption in 2010 was divided as follows: metallurgy – 30%, glass manufacturing – 30%, agriculture – 10%, chemicals and pigments – 10%, and electronics – 10%. China is the dominant consumer of selenium at 1,500–2,000 tonnes/year.^[49]

Applications

Manganese electrolysis

During the electro winning of manganese an addition of selenium dioxide decreases the power necessary to operate the electrolysis cells. China is the largest consumer of selenium dioxide for this purpose. For every tonne of manganese, an average of 2 kg selenium oxide is used.^[49]^[50]

Glass production

The largest commercial use of Se, accounting for about 50% of consumption, is for the production of glass. Se compounds confer a red color to glass. This color cancels out the green or yellow tints that arise from iron impurities that are typical for most glass. For this purpose various selenite and selenate salts are added. For other applications, the red color may be desirable, in which case mixtures of CdSe and CdS are added.^[51]

Alloys

Selenium is used with bismuth in brasses to replace more toxic lead. The regulation of lead in drinking water applications with the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 made a reduction of lead in brass necessary. The new brass is marketed under the name EnviroBrass.^[52] Like lead and sulfur, selenium improves the machinability of steel at concentrations around 0.15%.^[53]^[54] The same improvement is also observed in copper alloys, so selenium is also used in machinable copper alloys.^[55]

Solar cells

Copper indium gallium selenide is a material used in the production of solar cells.^[56]

Other uses

Small amounts of organoselenium compounds are used to modify the vulcanization catalysts used in the production of rubber.^[46]

The demand for selenium by the electronics industry is declining, despite a number of continuing applications.^[49] Because of its photovoltaic and photoconductive properties, selenium is used in photocopying,^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60] photocells, light meters and solar cells. Its use as a photoconductor in plain-paper copiers once was a leading application but in the 1980s, the photoconductor application declined (although it was still a large end-use) as more and more copiers switched to the use of organic photoconductors. It was once widely used in selenium rectifiers. These uses have mostly been replaced by silicon-based devices or are in the process of being replaced. The most notable exception is in power DC surge protection, where the superior energy capabilities of selenium suppressors make them more desirable than metal oxide varistors.

Zinc selenide was the first material for blue LEDs, but gallium nitride is dominating the market now.^[61] Cadmium selenide has played an important part in the fabrication of quantum dots. Sheets of amorphous selenium convert X-ray images to patterns of charge in xeroradiography and in solid-state, flat-panel X-ray cameras.^[62]

Selenium is a catalyst in some chemical reactions, but it is not widely used because of issues with toxicity. In X-ray crystallography, incorporation of one or more selenium atoms in place of sulfur helps with multiple-wavelength anomalous dispersion and single wavelength anomalous dispersion phasing.^[63]

Selenium is used in the toning of photographic prints, and it is sold as a toner by numerous photographic manufacturers. Its use intensifies and extends the tonal range of black-and-white photographic images and improves the permanence of prints.^[64]^[65]^[66]

⁷⁵Se is used as a gamma source in industrial radiography.^[67]

Biological role

Although it is toxic in large doses, selenium is an essential micronutrient for animals. In plants, it occurs as a bystander mineral, sometimes in toxic proportions in forage (some plants may accumulate selenium as a defense against being eaten by animals, but other plants such as locoweed require selenium, and their growth indicates the presence of selenium in soil).^[4] See more on plant nutrition below.^{[clarification needed]}

Selenium is a component of the unusual amino acids selenocysteine and selenomethionine. In humans, selenium is a trace element nutrient that functions as cofactor for reduction of antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione peroxidases^[68] and certain forms of thioredoxin reductase found in animals and some plants (this enzyme occurs in all living organisms, but not all forms of it in plants require selenium).

The glutathione peroxidase family of enzymes (GSH-Px) catalyze certain reactions that remove reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides:

2 GSH + H₂O₂----GSH-Px → GSSG + 2 H₂O

Selenium also plays a role in the functioning of the thyroid gland and in every cell that uses thyroid hormone, by participating as a cofactor for the three of the four known types of thyroid hormone deiodinases, which activate and then deactivate various thyroid hormones and their metabolites; the iodothyronine deiodinases are the subfamily of deiodinase enzymes that use selenium as the otherwise rare amino acid selenocysteine. (Only the deiodinase iodotyrosine deiodinase, which works on the last breakdown products of thyroid hormone, does not use selenium.)^[69]

Selenium may inhibit Hashimoto's disease, in which the body's own thyroid cells are attacked as alien. A reduction of 21% on TPO antibodies was reported with the dietary intake of 0.2 mg of selenium.^[70]

Increased dietary selenium intakes reduce the effects of mercury toxicity,^[71]^[72]^[73] although this protective effect is only apparent at low to modest doses of mercury.^[74] Evidence suggests that the molecular mechanisms of mercury toxicity includes the irreversible inhibition of selenoenzymes that are required to prevent and reverse oxidative damage in brain and endocrine tissues.^[75]^[76]

Evolution in biology

From about three billion years ago, prokaryotic selenoprotein families drive the evolution of selenocysteine, an amino acid. Selenium is incorporated into several prokaryotic selenoprotein families in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as selenocysteine,^[77] where selenoprotein peroxiredoxins protect bacterial and eukaryotic cells against oxidative damage. Selenoprotein families of GSH-Px and the deiodinases of eukaryotic cells seem to have a bacterial phylogenetic origin. The selenocysteine-containing form occurs in species as diverse as green algae, diatoms, sea urchin, fish, and chicken. Selenium enzymes are involved in use of the small reducing molecules glutathione and thioredoxin. One family of selenium-containing molecules (the glutathione peroxidases) destroys peroxide and repairs damaged peroxidized cell membranes, using glutathione. Another selenium-containing enzyme in some plants and in animals (thioredoxin reductase) generates reduced thioredoxin, a dithiol that serves as an electron source for peroxidases and also the important reducing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase that makes DNA precursors from RNA precursors.^[78]

Trace elements involved in GSH-Px and superoxide dismutase enzymes activities, i.e. selenium, vanadium, magnesium, copper, and zinc, may have been lacking in some terrestrial mineral-deficient areas.^[77] Marine organisms retained and sometimes expanded their selenoproteomes, whereas the selenoproteomes of some terrestrial organisms were reduced or completely lost. These findings suggest that, with the exception of vertebrates, aquatic life supports selenium use, whereas terrestrial habitats lead to reduced use of this trace element.^[79] Marine fishes and vertebrate thyroid glands have the highest concentration of selenium and iodine. From about 500 Mya, freshwater and terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of "new" endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), polyphenols (including flavonoids), tocopherols, etc. A few of these appeared more recently, in the last 50–200 million years, in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants. In fact, the angiosperms (the dominant type of plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the late Jurassic period.

The deiodinase isoenzymes constitute another family of eukaryotic selenoproteins with identified enzyme function. Deiodinases are able to extract electrons from iodides, and iodides from iodothyronines. They are, thus, involved in thyroid-hormone regulation, participating in the protection of thyrocytes from damage by H₂O₂ produced for thyroid-hormone biosynthesis.^[80] About 200 Mya, new selenoproteins were developed as mammalian GSH-Px enzymes.^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84]

Nutritional sources of selenium

Dietary selenium comes from nuts, cereals and mushrooms. Brazil nuts are the richest ordinary dietary source (though this is soil-dependent, since the Brazil nut does not require high levels of the element for its own needs).^[85]^[86]

Recommended Dietary Allowance ~ 55 µg/day. Selenium as a dietary supplement is available in many forms, including multi-vitamins/mineral supplements - typically 20 µg/day. Selenium-specific supplements may have -200 µg/day.

In June 2015 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published its final rule establishing the requirement of minimum and maximum levels of selenium in infant formula.^[87]

The human body's content of selenium is believed to be in the 13–20 milligram range.^[88]

Indicator plant species

Certain species of plants are considered indicators of high selenium content of the soil, since they require high levels of selenium to thrive. The main selenium indicator plants are Astragalus species (including some locoweeds), prince's plume (Stanleya sp.), woody asters (Xylorhiza sp.), and false goldenweed (Oonopsis sp.)^[89]

Medical use

The substance loosely called selenium sulfide (approximate formula SeS₂) is the active ingredient in some anti-dandruff shampoos.^[90] The selenium compound kills the scalp fungus Malassezia, which causes shedding of dry skin fragments. The ingredient is also used in body lotions to treat tinea versicolor due to infection by a different species of Malassezia fungus.^[91]

Detection in biological fluids

Selenium may be measured in blood, plasma, serum or urine to monitor excessive environmental or occupational exposure, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims or to assist in a forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage. Some analytical techniques are capable of distinguishing organic from inorganic forms of the element. Both organic and inorganic forms of selenium are largely converted to monosaccharide conjugates (selenosugars) in the body prior to being eliminated in the urine. Cancer patients receiving daily oral doses of selenothionine may achieve very high plasma and urine selenium concentrations.^[92]

Toxicity

Although selenium is an essential trace element, it is toxic if taken in excess. Exceeding the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 400 micrograms per day can lead to selenosis.^[93] This 400 µg Tolerable Upper Intake Level is based primarily on a 1986 study of five Chinese patients who exhibited overt signs of selenosis and a follow up study on the same five people in 1992.^[94] The 1992 study actually found the maximum safe dietary Se intake to be approximately 800 micrograms per day (15 micrograms per kilogram body weight), but suggested 400 micrograms per day to not only avoid toxicity, but also to avoid creating an imbalance of nutrients in the diet and to account for data from other countries.^[95] In China, people who ingested corn grown in extremely selenium-rich stony coal (carbonaceous shale) have suffered from selenium toxicity. This coal was shown to have selenium content as high as 9.1%, the highest concentration in coal ever recorded in literature.^[96]

Signs and symptoms of selenosis include a garlic odor on the breath, gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss, sloughing of nails, fatigue, irritability, and neurological damage. Extreme cases of selenosis can result in cirrhosis of the liver, pulmonary edema, and death.^[97] Elemental selenium and most metallic selenides have relatively low toxicities because of their low bioavailability. By contrast, selenates and selenites are very toxic, having an oxidant mode of action similar to that of arsenic trioxide. The chronic toxic dose of selenite for humans is about 2400 to 3000 micrograms of selenium per day for a long time.^[98] Hydrogen selenide is an extremely toxic, corrosive gas.^[99] Selenium also occurs in organic compounds, such as dimethyl selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine and methylselenocysteine, all of which have high bioavailability and are toxic in large doses.

On 19 April 2009, 21 polo ponies died shortly before a match in the United States Polo Open. Three days later, a pharmacy released a statement explaining that the horses had received an incorrect dose of one of the ingredients used in a vitamin/mineral supplement compound that had been incorrectly compounded by a compounding pharmacy. Analysis of blood levels of inorganic compounds in the supplement indicated the selenium concentrations were ten to fifteen times higher than normal in the horses' blood samples, and 15 to 20 times higher than normal in their liver samples. It was later confirmed that selenium was the ingredient in question.^[100]

Selenium poisoning of water systems may result whenever new agricultural runoff courses through normally dry, undeveloped lands. This process leaches natural soluble selenium compounds (such as selenates) into the water, which may then be concentrated in new "wetlands" as the water evaporates. Selenium pollution to waterways also occurs from leaching of selenium from coal flue ash, mining and metal smelting, crude oil processing and landfill.^[101] The resulting high selenium levels in waterways have been found to have caused certain congenital disorders in oviparous species such as wetland birds,^[102] and fish.^[103] Elevated dietary methylmercury levels can enhance the negative effects of selenium toxicity in oviparous species.^[104]^[105]

Relationship between survival of juvenile salmon and concentration of selenium in their tissues after 90 days (Chinook salmon^[106]) or 45 days (Atlantic salmon^[107]) exposure to dietary selenium. The 10% lethality level (LC10=1.84 µg/g) was derived by applying the biphasic model of Brain and Cousens^[108] to only the Chinook salmon data. The Chinook salmon data comprise two series of dietary treatments, combined here because the effects on survival are indistinguishable.

In fish and other wildlife, low levels of selenium cause deficiency while high levels cause toxicity. For example, in salmon, the optimal concentration of selenium in the fish tissue (whole body) is about 1 microgram selenium per gram of tissue (dry weight). At levels much below that concentration, young salmon die from selenium deficiency;^[107] much above that level they die from toxic excess.^[106]

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for selenium exposure in the workplace as 0.2 mg/m³ over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.2 mg/m³ over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 1 mg/m³, selenium is immediately dangerous to life and health.^[109]

Deficiency

Selenium deficiency is rare in healthy, well-nourished individuals. It can occur in patients with severely compromised intestinal function, those undergoing total parenteral nutrition, and^[110] in those of advanced age (over 90). Also, people dependent on food grown from selenium-deficient soil are at risk. Although New Zealand has low levels of selenium in its soil, adverse health effects have not been detected.^[111]

Selenium deficiency as defined by low (<60% of normal) selenoenzyme activity levels in brain and endocrine tissues occurs only when a low selenium status is linked with an additional stress, such as high exposures to mercury^[112] or as a result of increased oxidant stress due to vitamin E deficiency.^[113]

There are interactions between selenium and other nutrients, such as iodine and vitamin E. The effect of selenium deficiency on health remains uncertain, particularly in relation to Kashin-Beck disease.^[114] Also, there are interactions between selenium and other minerals, such as zinc and copper. It seems that a high dose of Se supplements to pregnant animals might disturb the Zn:Cu ratio which, in turn, leads to Zn reduction. It can be concluded that the Zn status should be monitored when high doses of Se are supplemented to pregnant animals. Further studies need to be done with higher levels of Se supplement to conﬁrm these interactions.^[115]

In some regions (e.g. various regions within North America) where low available selenium levels in soil lead to low concentrations in dry matter of plants, Se deficiency in some animal species may occur unless dietary (or injected) selenium supplementation is done.^[116] Ruminants are particularly susceptible. In general, absorption of dietary selenium is lower in ruminants than in non-ruminants, and is lower from forages than from grain.^[117] Ruminants grazing certain forages, e.g. some white clover varieties containing cyanogenic glycosides, may have higher selenium requirements,^[117] presumably because of cyanide from the aglycone released by glucosidase activity in the rumen^[118] and inactivation of glutathione peroxidases due to absorbed cyanide's effect on the glutathione moiety.^[119] Neonate ruminants at risk of WMD (white muscle disease) may be administered both selenium and vitamin E by injection; some of the WMD myopathies respond only to selenium, some only to vitamin E, and some to either.^[120]

Controversial health effects

A number of correlative epidemiological studies have implicated selenium deficiency (as measured by blood levels) in a number of serious or chronic diseases, such as cancer,^[121] diabetes,^[121] HIV/AIDS,^[122] and tuberculosis. In addition, selenium supplementation has been found to be a chemopreventive for some types of cancer in some types of rodents. However, in randomized, blinded, controlled prospective trials in humans, selenium supplementation has not succeeded in reducing the incidence of any disease, nor has a meta-analysis of such selenium supplementation studies detected a decrease in overall mortality.^[123]

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^ Kasap, Safa; Frey, Joel B.; Belev, George; et al. (2009). "Amorphous selenium and its alloys from early xeroradiography to high resolution X-ray image detectors and ultrasensitive imaging tubes". Physica status solidi (b) 246 (8): 1794–1805. Bibcode:2009PSSBR.246.1794K. doi:10.1002/pssb.200982007.
^ Hai-Fu, F.; Woolfson, M. M.; Jia-Xing, Y. (1993). "New Techniques of Applying Multi-Wavelength Anomalous Scattering Data". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 442 (1914): 13–32. Bibcode:1993RSPSA.442...13H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1993.0087.
^ MacLean, Marion E. (1937). "A project for general chemistry students: Color toning of photographic prints". Journal of Chemical Education 14: 31. Bibcode:1937JChEd..14...31M. doi:10.1021/ed014p31.
^ Penichon, Sylvie (1999). "Differences in Image Tonality Produced by Different Toning Protocols for Matte Collodion Photographs". Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 38 (2): 124–143. doi:10.2307/3180042. JSTOR 3180042.
^ McKenzie, Joy (2003). Exploring Basic Black & White Photography. Delmar. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-4018-1556-1.
^ Hayward, Peter; Currie, Dean. "Radiography of Welds Using Selenium 75, Ir 192 and X-rays" (PDF).
^ Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University lpi.oregonstate.edu
^ "Selenium". Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
^ Mazokopakis, EE; Papadakis, JA; Papadomanolaki, MG; et al. (2007). "Effects of 12 months treatment with L-selenomethionine on serum anti-TPO Levels in Patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis". Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association 17 (7): 609–612. doi:10.1089/thy.2007.0040. PMID 17696828.
^ Ralston, NV; Ralston, CR; Blackwell, JL III; Raymond, LJ (2008). "Dietary and tissue selenium in relation to methylmercury toxicity" (PDF). Neurotoxicology 29 (5): 802–811. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2008.07.007. PMID 18761370.
^ Penglase, S; Hamre, K; Ellingsen, S (2014). "Selenium prevents downregulation of antioxidant selenoprotein genes by methylmercury". Free Radical Biology and Medicine 75: 95–104. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.07.019. PMID 25064324.
^ Usuki, F; Yamashita, A; Fujimura, M (2011). "Post-transcriptional defects of antioxidant selenoenzymes cause oxidative stress under methylmercury exposure". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 286 (8): 6641–6649. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.168872.
^ Ohi, G; Seki, H; Maeda, H; Yagyu, H (1975). "Protective effect of selenite against methylmercury toxicity: observations concerning time, dose and route factors in the development of selenium attenuation". Industrial Health 13: 93–99. doi:10.2486/indhealth.13.93.
^ Ralston, NVC; Raymond, LJ (2010). "Dietary selenium's protective effects against methylmercury toxicity". Toxicology 278 (1): 112–123. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2010.06.004. PMID 20561558.
^ Carvalho, CML; Chew, Hashemy SI; Hashemy, J; et al. (2008). "Inhibition of the human thioredoxin system: A molecular mechanism of mercury toxicity". Journal of Biological Chemistry 283 (18): 11913–11923. doi:10.1074/jbc.M710133200. PMID 18321861.
^ ^a ^b Gladyshev, Vadim N.; Hatfield, Dolph L. (1999). "Selenocysteine-containing proteins in mammals". Journal of Biomedical Science 6 (3): 151–160. doi:10.1007/BF02255899. PMID 10343164.
^ Stadtman, TC (1996). "Selenocysteine". Annual Review of Biochemistry 65: 83–100. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.65.070196.000503. PMID 8811175.
^ Lobanov, Alexey V; Fomenko, Dmitri E; Zhang, Yan; et al. (2007). "Evolutionary dynamics of eukaryotic selenoproteomes: large selenoproteomes may associate with aquatic life and small with terrestrial life". Genome Biology 8 (9): R198. doi:10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r198. PMC 2375036. PMID 17880704.
^ Venturi, Sebastiano; Venturi, Mattia (2007), "Evolution of Dietary Antioxidant Defences" (PDF), European EpiMarker 11 (3), pp. 1–11
^ Castellano, Sergi; Novoselov, Sergey V; Kryukov, Gregory V; et al. (2004). "Reconsidering the evolution of eukaryotic selenoproteins: a novel nonmammalian family with scattered phylogenetic distribution". EMBO Reports 5 (1): 71–7. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400036. PMC 1298953. PMID 14710190.
^ Kryukov, Gregory V; Gladyshev, Vadim N (2004). "The prokaryotic selenoproteome". EMBO Reports 5 (5): 538–43. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400126. PMC 1299047. PMID 15105824.
^ Wilting, R.; Schorling, S.; Persson, B.C.; Böck, A. (1997). "Selenoprotein synthesis in archaea: identification of an mRNA element of Methanococcus jannaschii probably directing selenocysteine insertion". Journal of Molecular Biology 266 (4): 637–41. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1996.0812. PMID 9102456.
^ Zhang, Yan; Fomenko, Dmitri E; Gladyshev, Vadim N (2005). "The microbial selenoproteome of the Sargasso Sea". Genome Biology 6 (4): R37. doi:10.1186/gb-2005-6-4-r37. PMC 1088965. PMID 15833124.
^ Barclay, Margaret N. I.; MacPherson, Allan; Dixon, James (1995). "Selenium content of a range of UK food". Journal of food composition and analysis 8 (4): 307–318. doi:10.1006/jfca.1995.1025.
^ A list of selenium-rich foods can be found on The Office of Dietary Supplements Selenium Fact Sheet.
^ "FDA Issues Final Rule to Add Selenium to List of Required Nutrients for Infant Formula". www.fda.gov. Retrieved 2015-09-10.
^ A common reference for this is Schroeder, HA; Frost, DV; Balassa, JJ (1970). "Essential trace metals in man: Selenium". Journal of chronic diseases 23 (4): 227–43. doi:10.1016/0021-9681(70)90003-2. PMID 4926392.
^ Zane Davis, T. (2008-03-27). "Selenium in Plants" (PDF). p. 8. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
^ "Selenium(IV)_sulfide". Pharmacy Codes. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ "Selenium sulfide". DermNet NZ. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ Baselt, R. (2008). Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man (8th ed.). Foster City, CA: Biomedical Publications. pp. 1416–1420. ISBN 978-0-9626523-5-6.
^ "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Selenium". National Institutes of Health; Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
^ Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and Interpretation and Uses of DRIs, Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine (August 15, 2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Institute of Medicine. pp. 314–315. ISBN 0-309-06949-1.
^ Yang, G.; Zhou, R. (1994). "Further Observations on the Human Maximum Safe Dietary Selenium Intake in a Seleniferous Area of China". Journal of trace elements and electrolytes in health and disease 8 (3–4): 159–165. PMID 7599506.
^ Yang, Guang-Qi; Xia, Yi-Ming (1995). "Studies on Human Dietary Requirements and Safe Range of Dietary Intakes of Selenium in China and Their Application in the Prevention of Related Endemic Diseases". Biomedical and Environmental Sciences 8 (3): 187–201. PMID 8561918.
^ "Public Health Statement: Health Effects" (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
^ Wilber, C. G. (1980). "Toxicology of selenium". Clinical Toxicology 17 (2): 171–230. doi:10.3109/15563658008985076. PMID 6998645.
^ Olson, O.E. (1986). "Selenium Toxicity in Animals with Emphasis on Man". International Journal of Toxicology 5: 45–70. doi:10.3109/10915818609140736.
^ "Polo pony selenium levels up to 20 times higher than normal". 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
^ Lemly, D (2004). "Aquatic selenium pollution is a global environmental safety issue". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 59: 44–56. doi:10.1016/S0147-6513(03)00095-2.
^ Ohlendorf, H. M. (2003). Ecotoxicology of selenium. Handbook of ecotoxicology. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers. pp. 466–491. ISBN 978-1-56670-546-2.
^ Lemly, A.D (1997). "A teratogenic deformity index for evaluating impacts of selenium on fish populations". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 37 (3): 259–266. doi:10.1006/eesa.1997.1554.
^ Penglase, S; Hamre, K; Ellingsen, S (2014). "Selenium and mercury have a synergistic negative effect on fish reproduction". Aquatic Toxicology 149: 16–24. doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.01.020.
^ Heinz, GH; Hoffman, DJ (1998). "Methylmercury chloride and selenomethionine interactions on health and reproduction in mallards". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 17 (2): 139–145. doi:10.1002/etc.5620170202.
^ ^a ^b Hamilton, Steven J.; Buhl, Kevin J.; Faerber, Neil L.; et al. (1990). "Toxicity of organic selenium in the diet to chinook salmon". Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 9 (3): 347–358. doi:10.1002/etc.5620090310.
^ ^a ^b Poston, H. A.; Combs Jr., GF; Leibovitz, L (1976). "Vitamin E and selenium interrelations in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): gross, histological and biochemical signs". Journal of Nutrition 106 (7): 892–904. PMID 932827.
^ Brain, P.; Cousens, R. (1989). "Weed Research". Weed Research 29 (2): 93–96. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3180.1989.tb00845.x.
^ "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Selenium". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
^ Ravaglia, G; Forti, P; Maioli, F; et al. (2000). "Effect of micronutrient status on natural killer cell immune function in healthy free-living subjects aged >=90 y1". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (2): 590–598. PMID 10648276.
^ MedSafe Editorial Team. "Selenium". Prescriber Update Articles. New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority. Retrieved 2009-07-13.
^ Ralston, N.V.C.; Raymond, L.J. (2010). "Dietary selenium's protective effects against methylmercury toxicity". Toxicology 278 (1): 112–123. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2010.06.004. PMID 20561558.
^ Mann, Jim; Truswell, A. Stewart (2002). Essentials of Human Nutrition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-262756-8.
^ Moreno-Reyes, R; Mathieu, F; Boelaert, M; et al. (2003). "Selenium and iodine supplementation of rural Tibetan children affected by Kashin-Beck osteoarthropathy". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (1): 137–144. PMID 12816783.
^ Kachuee, R; Moeini, M; Suori, M (2013). "The effect of dietary organic and inorganic selenium supplementation on serum Se, Cu, Fe and Zn status during the late pregnancy in Merghoz goats and their kids". Small Ruminant Research 110 (1): 20–27. doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2012.08.010.
^ National Research Council, Subcommittee on Sheep Nutrition (1985). Nutrient requirements of sheep. 6th ed., National Academy Press, Washington, ISBN 0309035961.
^ ^a ^b National Research Council, Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants (2007). Nutrient requirements of small ruminants. National Academies Press, Washington, ISBN 0-309-10213-8.
^ Coop, I. E.; Blakely, R. L. (1949). "The metabolism and toxicity of cyanides and cyanogenic glycosides in sheep". N. Z. J. Sci. Technol 30: 277–291.
^ Kraus, R. J.; Prohaska, J. R.; Ganther, H. E. (1980). "Oxidized forms of ovine erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase. Cyanide inhibition of 4-glutathione:4-selenoenzyme". Biochem. Biophys. Acta 615 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1016/0005-2744(80)90004-2. PMID 7426660.
^ Kahn, C. M. (ed.) (2005). Merck veterinary manual. 9th ed. Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, ISBN 0911910506.
^ ^a ^b Ip, C (1998). "Lessons from basic research in selenium and cancer prevention" (PDF). The Journal of Nutrition 128 (11): 1845–54. PMID 9808633.
^ Rayman, Margaret P. (2000). "The importance of selenium to human health". The Lancet 356 (9225): 233–41. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02490-9. PMID 10963212.
^ Bjelakovic, G; Nikolova, D; Gluud, LL; et al. (2012). Bjelakovic, Goran, ed. "Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) 3: CD007176. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2. PMID 22419320.

External links

Selenium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
National Institutes of Health page on Selenium
Assay
ATSDR – Toxicological Profile: Selenium
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Peter van der Krogt elements site

UpToDate Contents

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Webアプリケーションは大規模化にともないテストコードの作成コストが増大しているうえ,保守コストが膨大であるという問題がある.特に,Webアプリケーションは他のアプリケーションよりも仕様変更の頻度が高く,また,アサーションの記述に関して構造化する手法が存在していないため,可読性および変更容易性の低下により,保守コストが増大しがちである.本稿では,Webアプリケーションの頻繁な仕様変更に対応可能なペ …
NAID 110009884075

セレン欠乏による爪の白色変化の1例 (特集代謝異常症・沈着症・黄色腫)

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湿式脱硫装置および排水処理装置におけるセレンの挙動

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Appl. Phys. Express 8(2), 021201, 2015-01-26
… The S/Se molar ratio and the bandgap of Cu<inf>2</inf>ZnSn(S,Se)<inf>4</inf>films were controlled by changing the input ratio of selenium source (SeO<inf>2</inf>) to sulfur source (S<inf>8</inf>). …
NAID 150000110097

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「セレン」「セレニウム」「Se」
拡張検索	「selenium compound」

「セレン」

NFPA 704; "fire diamond"
	0 2 0
	Fire diamond for elemental selenium

Selenium, ₃₄Se
General properties
Name, symbol	selenium, Se
Appearance	black, red, and gray (not pictured) allotropes
Pronunciation	/sᵻˈliːniəm/; si-LEE-nee-əm
Selenium in the periodic table
	arsenic ← selenium → bromine
Atomic number (Z)	34
Group, block	group 16 (chalcogens), p-block
Period	period 4
Element category	polyatomic nonmetal, sometimes considered a metalloid
Standard atomic weight (±) (Ar)	78.971(8)
Electron configuration	[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4
per shell	2, 8, 18, 6
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Melting point	494 K (221 °C, 430 °F)
Boiling point	958 K (685 °C, 1265 °F)
Density near r.t.	gray: 4.81 g/cm3; alpha: 4.39 g/cm3; vitreous: 4.28 g/cm3
when liquid, at m.p.	3.99 g/cm3
Critical point	1766 K, 27.2 MPa
Heat of fusion	gray: 6.69 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	95.48 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	25.363 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, −1, −2 (a strongly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 2.55
Ionization energies	1st: 941.0 kJ/mol; 2nd: 2045 kJ/mol; 3rd: 2973.7 kJ/mol
Atomic radius	empirical: 120 pm
Covalent radius	120±4 pm
Van der Waals radius	190 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	hexagonal
Speed of sound thin rod	3350 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	amorphous: 37 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity	amorphous: 0.519 W/(m·K)
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Young's modulus	10 GPa
Shear modulus	3.7 GPa
Bulk modulus	8.3 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.33
Mohs hardness	2.0
Brinell hardness	736 MPa
CAS Number	7782-49-2
History
Naming	after Selene, Greek goddess of the moon
Discovery and first isolation	Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Johann Gottlieb Gahn (1817)
Most stable isotopes of selenium
	Decay modes in parentheses are predicted, but have not yet been observed
	view; talk; edit; \| references

外見
	黒色または赤色;
一般特性
名称, 記号, 番号	セレン, Se, 34
分類	半金属
族, 周期, ブロック	16, 4, p
原子量	78.96
電子配置	[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p4
電子殻	2, 8, 18, 6（画像）
物理特性
相	固体
密度（室温付近）	（灰色セレン）4.81 g/cm3
密度（室温付近）	（αセレン）4.39 g/cm3
密度（室温付近）	（ガラス状セレン）4.28 g/cm3
融点での液体密度	3.99 g/cm3
融点	494 K, 221 °C, 430 °F
沸点	958 K, 685 °C, 1265 °F
臨界点	1766 K, 27.2 MPa
融解熱	（灰色セレン）6.69 kJ/mol
蒸発熱	95.48 kJ/mol
熱容量	(25 °C) 25.363 J/(mol·K)
蒸気圧
原子特性
酸化数	6, 4, 2, 1, -2（強酸性酸化物）
電気陰性度	2.55（ポーリングの値）
イオン化エネルギー	第1： 941.0 kJ/mol
	第2： 2045 kJ/mol
	第3： 2973.7 kJ/mol
原子半径	120 pm
共有結合半径	120±4 pm
ファンデルワールス半径	190 pm
その他
結晶構造	六方晶系
磁性	反磁性
熱伝導率	(300 K) （無定形セレン）0.519 W/(m·K)
熱膨張率	(25 °C) （無定形セレン）37 µm/(m·K)
音の伝わる速さ; （微細ロッド）	(20 °C) 3350 m/s
ヤング率	10 GPa
剛性率	3.7 GPa
体積弾性率	8.3 GPa
ポアソン比	0.33
モース硬度	2.0
ブリネル硬度	736 MPa
CAS登録番号	7782-49-2
最安定同位体
	詳細はセレンの同位体を参照
	表示

　　[★]

英: selenium
関: セレン欠乏症

臨床関連

「セレニウム」

　　[★]

英: selenium, Se, セレン

「Se」

　　[★] セレン selenium

「selenium compound」

　　[★]

セレン化合物、セレニウム化合物

[1] “Selenium : Selenium(I) chloride compound data”. WebElements.com. 2007年12月10日閲覧。

[2] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.

[3] 日本化学会編『第6版化学便覧応用化学編』丸善出版社 p.46

[4] インドではガラスの腕輪の着色に好んで使われるインドは「自分の写し鏡」（中村繁夫（アドバンストマテリアルジャパン社長）、Wedge Infinity 2012年9月4日掲載）

[5] 日本人の食事摂取基準厚生労働省

[6] ミネラル補給用サプリメントの含有量調査セレンの分析東京都健康安全研究センター研究年報 2007年

[7] 「健康食品」の安全性・有効性情報セレン独立行政法人国立健康・栄養研究所

[8] 過剰のミネラルを含むダイエタリーサプリメントについて (PDF) 東京都食品安全情報評価委員会

[IUPAC-1] Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights

[2] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.

[3] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.

[Ruyle-4] Ruyle, George. "Poisonous Plants on Arizona Rangelands" (PDF). The University of Arizona. Retrieved 2009-01-05.

[house2008-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h House, James E. (2008). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. p. 524. ISBN 0-12-356786-6.

[ge-6] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 751–752. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.

[7] Video of selenium heating on YouTube

[8] "The half-life of ⁷⁹Se". Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt. 2010-09-23. Retrieved 2012-05-29.

[9] Jörg, Gerhard; Bühnemann, Rolf; Hollas, Simon; et al. (2010). "Preparation of radiochemically pure ⁷⁹Se and highly precise determination of its half-life". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 68 (12): 2339–2351. doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2010.05.006. PMID 20627600.

[Audi-10] Audi, Georges; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.

[wiberg_holleman-11] Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 583. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.

[12] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 780. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.

[13] Seppelt, K.; Desmarteau, Darryl D. (1980). "Selenoyl difluoride". Inorganic Syntheses. Inorganic Syntheses 20: 36–38. doi:10.1002/9780470132517.ch9. ISBN 0-471-07715-1. The report describes the synthesis of selenic acid.

[14] Lenher, V. (April 1902). "Action of selenic acid on gold". Journal of the American Chemical Society 24 (4): 354–355. doi:10.1021/ja02018a005.

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