出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2013/06/28 21:01:09」(JST)
Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasises systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation.[1]
The term psychodynamics is also used by some to refer specifically to the psychoanalytical approach developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers. Freud was inspired by the theory of thermodynamics and used the term psychodynamics to describe the processes of the mind as flows of psychological energy (libido) in an organically complex brain.[2] The use of the term psychodynamics for Freud's successors is confusing though, because some of those successors, in particular John Bowlby, opposed the founding principles of Freud's theory, forming opposing factions.[original research?] Bowlby's attachment theory, still described as 'psychodynamic' in approach, is widely considered to be the basis of most current research, and to have put the field formerly known as psychoanalysis on a more scientifically based, experimentally testable, footing.[3]
In the treatment of psychological distress, psychodynamic psychotherapy tends to be a less intensive, once- or twice-weekly modality than the classical Freudian psychoanalysis treatment of 3-5 sessions per week. Psychodynamic therapies depend upon a theory of inner conflict, wherein repressed behaviours and emotions surface into the patient’s consciousness; generally, one conflict is subconscious.[4]
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In general, psychodynamics is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the unconscious level.[5][6][7] The mental forces involved in psychodynamics are often divided into two parts:[8] (a) the interaction of the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior and mental states, especially on a subconscious level; (b) inner forces affecting behavior: the study of the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior and states of mind.
Freud proposed that psychological energy was constant (hence, emotional changes consisted only in displacements) and that it tended to rest (point attractor) through discharge (catharsis).[9]
In mate selection psychology, psychodynamics is defined as the study of the forces, motives, and energy generated by the deepest of human needs.[10]
In general, psychodynamics studies the transformations and exchanges of "psychic energy" within the personality.[6] A focus in psychodynamics is the connection between the energetics of emotional states in the id, ego, and superego as they relate to early childhood developments and processes. At the heart of psychological processes, according to Freud, is the ego, which he envisions as battling with three forces: the id, the super-ego, and the outside world.[5] The id is the unconscious reservoir of libido, the psychic energy that fuels instincts and psychic processes. The ego serves as the general manager of personality, making decisions regarding the pleasures that will be pursued at the id's demand, the person's safety requirements, and the moral dictates of the superego that will be followed. The superego refers to the repository of an individual's moral values, divided into the conscience - the internalization of a society's rules and regulations - and the ego-ideal - the internalization of one's goals. [11] Hence, the basic psychodynamic model focuses on the dynamic interactions between the id, ego, and superego.[12] Psychodynamics, subsequently, attempts to explain or interpret behaviour or mental states in terms of innate emotional forces or processes.
Freud used the term psychodynamics to describe the processes of the mind as flows of psychological energy (libido) in an organically complex brain.[2] The idea for this came from his first year adviser, Ernst Brucke at the University of Vienna, who held the view that all living organisms, including humans, are basically energy-systems to which the principle of the conservation of energy applies.[13] This principle states that "the total amount of energy in any given physical system is always constant, that energy quanta can be changed but not annihilated, and that consequently when energy is moved from one part of the system, it must reappear in another part."[13] This principle is at the very root of Freuds ideas, whereby libido, which is primarily seen as sexual energy, is transformed into other behaviours. However, it is now clear that the term energy in physics means something quite different from the term energy in relation to mental functioning.
Psychodynamics was initially further developed by Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Melanie Klein.[6][7] By the mid-1940s and into the 1950s, the general application of the "psychodynamic theory" had been well established.[citation needed]
In his 1988 book Introduction to Psychodynamics - a New Synthesis, psychiatrist Mardi J. Horowitz states that his own interest and fascination with psychodynamics began during the 1950s, when he heard Ralph Greenson, a popular local psychoanalyst who spoke to the public on topics such as “People who Hate”, speak on the radio at UCLA. In his radio discussion, according to Horowitz, he “vividly described neurotic behavior and unconscious mental processes and linked psychodynamics theory directly to everyday life.”[14]
In the 1950s, American psychiatrist Eric Berne built on Freud's psychodynamic model, particularly that of the "ego states", to develop a psychology of human interactions called transactional analysis[15] which, according to physician James R. Allen, is a "cognitive behavioral approach to treatment and that it is a very effective way of dealing with internal models of self and others as well as other psychodynamic issues."[15] The theory was popularized in the 1964 book Games People Play, a book that sold five million copies, giving way to such catch phrases as “Boy, has he got your number!”.
Early researchers in France set the scene for the psychodynamic approach. Jean-Martin Charcot, for example, lectured on Mesmerism or Hypnosis, ideas that Sigmund Freud, who attended his lectures, would later take up.
William James was an early user of the term 'Subconscious Mind'. His student Boris Sidis and published books on topics that formed the foundation for much of Freud's work, though he used the terms 'Unconscious' and sometimes 'Preconscious'.
According to American psychologist Calvin S. Hall, from his 1954 Primer in Freudian Psychology:
“ | Freud greatly admired Brücke and quickly became indoctrinated by this new dynamic physiology. Thanks to Freud’s singular genius, he was to discover some twenty years later that the laws of dynamics could be applied to man’s personality as well as to his body. When he made his discovery Freud proceeded to create a dynamic psychology. A dynamic psychology is one that studies the transformations and exchanges of energy within the personality. This was Freud’s greatest achievement, and one of the greatest achievements in modern science, It is certainly a crucial event in the history of psychology. | ” |
At the heart of psychological processes, according to Freud, is the ego, which he sees battling with three forces: the id, the super-ego, and the outside world.[5] Hence, the basic psychodynamic model focuses on the dynamic interactions between the id, ego, and superego.[12] Psychodynamics, subsequently, attempts to explain or interpret behavior or mental states in terms of innate emotional forces or processes. In his writings about the "engines of human behavior", Freud used the German word Trieb, a word that can be translated into English as either instinct or drive.[16]
In the 1930s, Freud's daughter Anna Freud began to apply Freud's psychodynamic theories of the "ego" to the study of parent-child attachment and especially deprivation and in doing so developed ego psychology.
At the turn of the 20th century, during these decisive years, a young Swiss psychiatrist named Carl Jung had been following Freud’s writings and had sent him copies of his articles and his first book, the 1907 Psychology of Dementia Praecox, in which he upheld the Freudian psychodynamic viewpoint, although with some reservations. That year, Freud invited Jung to visit him in Vienna. The two men, it is said, were greatly attracted to each other, and they talked continuously for thirteen hours. This led to a professional relationship in which they corresponded on a weekly basis, for a period of six years.[17]
Carl Jung's contributions in psychodynamic psychology include:
John Bowlby was originally a follower of the Freudian tradition at the Tavistock Clinic in London, but broke away from Freud's key ideas and revolutionised the field. Bowlby's inspiration came from reading the work of Konrad Lorenz, the famous Nobel-Prize winning founder of the field of ethology or animal behaviiour. In particular Bowlby was struck by the phenomenon of imprinting, which Lorenz had studied in birds, and he saw the possibility that infants might imprint on their mother in a similar way. Along with his student Mary Ainsworth he studied infant behaviour, and developed what he called attachment theory. He rejected Freud's ideas of damage caused by frustrated impulses, in favour of the idea that maternal deprivation is a major cause of disturbed development and later psychological problems. Later he realised that infants need a stable, safe person or persons to provide a feeling of security from which they can venture out and explore. Many other workers in the field have since carried out experiments on infants and on animals which seem to confirm and refine this idea.[3]
Bowlby's work led to a major change in hospital practice in the UK, where children admitted to hospital had not been allowed visits from parents during their stay. Contact with parents was said to unsettle the children and interfere with ward routine. Today, parents are encouraged to stay with their children in UK hospitals, or visit whenever they want.[citation needed]
At present, psychodynamics is an evolving multi-disciplinary field which analyzes and studies human thought process, response patterns, and influences. Research in this field provides insights into a number of areas, including:[19]
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リンク元 | 「力動的」「psychodynamic」「精神力動的」 |
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