関: new world camelid

WordNet

wild or domesticated South American cud-chewing animal related to camels but smaller and lacking a hump
vigorous evergreen climbing plant of South America having glossy leathery foliage and golden yellow flowers (同)golden trumpet, Allamanda cathartica
used in the Andes as a beast of burden and source of wool; considered a domesticated variety of the guanaco (同)Lama peruana
a plant of the genus Allamanda having large showy funnel-shaped flowers in terminal cymes
genus of tropical American woody vines

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ラマ(南米産ラクダの一種;その毛は織物の材料となる)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/06/21 13:57:13」(JST)

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The llama (/ˈlɑːmə/; Spanish: [ˈʝama] locally: [ˈʎama] or [ˈʒama]) (Lama glama) is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since pre-Hispanic times.

The height of a full-grown, full-size llama is 1.7 to 1.8 m (5.5 to 6.0 ft) tall at the top of the head, and can weigh between 130 and 200 kg (280 to 450 lb). At birth, a baby llama (called a cria) can weigh between 9 and 14 kg (20 and 30 lb). Llamas typically live for 15-25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more.^[1] ^[2] ^[3]

They are very social animals and live with other llamas as a herd. The wool produced by a llama is very soft and lanolin-free. Llamas are intelligent and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25% to 30% of their body weight for 8–13 km (5–8 miles).^[4]

The name llama (in the past also spelled 'lama' or 'glama') was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians.^[5]

Llamas appear to have originated from the central plains of North America about 40 million years ago. They migrated to South America about three million years ago. By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America.^[4] As of 2007, there were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America, and due to importation from South America in the late 20th century, there are now over 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas in the United States and Canada.^[6]

Classification

A llama in Kenosha, Wisconsin

A traditionally dressed Quechua girl with a llama in Cuzco, Peru

Lamoids, or llamas (as they are more generally known as a group), consist of the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna, prev. Lama vicugna), guanaco (Lama guanicoe), Suri alpaca, and Huacaya alpaca (Vicugna pacos, prev. Lama guanicoe pacos), and the domestic llama (Lama guanicoe glama). Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while alpacas – as well as llamas – exist only as domesticated animals.^[7] Although early writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae (1758) of Linnaeus.^[8] They were, however, separated by Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama along with the guanaco.^[9] Alpacas and vicuñas are in genus Vicugna. The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda, or "bump-footed", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consist of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina (pigs), the Tragulina (chevrotains), the Pecora (ruminants), and the Whippomorpha (hippos and cetaceans, which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic, if not traditional, standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa, standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of the other taxa.^{[citation needed]}

A domestic llama

The 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, as interpreted by paleontologists Leidy, Cope, and Marsh, aided understanding of the early history of this family.^{[citation needed]} Llamas were not always confined to South America; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains and in Central America. Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. North American llamas are categorized as a single extinct genus, Hemiauchenia. Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago, in modern-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, and Florida.^[10]

The camelid lineage has a good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species back through early Miocene forms. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls.^{[citation needed]} No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that North America was the original home of camelids, and that Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange, where they evolved further. Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene.^[11]

Characteristics

The following characteristics apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults:-incisors 1/3 canines 1/1, premolars 2/2, molars 3/2; total 32. In the upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla.^[12] The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series which are in contact with each other consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge.

Names of llama body parts: 1 ears – 2 poll – 3 withers – 4 back – 5 hip – 6 croup – 7 base of tail – 8 tail – 9 buttock – 10 hock – 11 metatarsal gland – 12 heel – 13 cannon bone – 14 gaskin – 15 stifle joint – 16 flank – 17 barrel – 18 elbow – 19 pastern – 20 fetlock – 21 Knee – 22 Chest – 23 point of shoulder – 24 shoulder – 25 throat – 26 cheek or jowl – 27 muzzle

The skull generally resembles that of Camelus, the larger brain-cavity and orbits and less-developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxilla.

Vertebrae:

cervical 7,
dorsal 12,
lumbar 7,
sacral 4,
caudal 15 to 20.

The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad. The tail is short, and fibre is long, woolly and soft.

In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.

The question is complicated by the circumstance of the great majority of individuals which have come under observation being either in a completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors which have previously been domesticated, a state which tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though with difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics.

These are:

the llama, Lama glama (Linnaeus);
the alpaca, Vicugna pacos (Linnaeus);
the guanaco (from the Quechua huanaco), Lama guanicoe (Müller); and
the vicuña, Vicugna vicugna (Molina)

The llama and alpaca are only known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and of many colors, being often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild, the former being endangered, and of a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below. They certainly differ from each other, the vicuña being smaller, more slender in its proportions, and having a shorter head than the guanaco. The vicuña lives in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia. Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. The fiber is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is minimal. Alpacas are descended from wild vicuna ancestors, while domesticated llamas are descended from wild guanaco ancestors, though a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species has occurred.

Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer head, and curved ears. Alpaca fiber is generally more expensive, but not always more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body. The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a hump or humps and llamas do not.

Reproduction

A dam and her cria

Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for a large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators.^[13] Through the act of mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt. Female llamas do not go into estrus ("heat").^[14]

Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates. Females reach puberty at about 12 months old; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age.^[15]

Mating

Llamas mate with the female in a kush (lying down) position, which is fairly unusual in a large animal. They mate for an extended period of time (20–45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal.^[16]

Gestation

The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue which does not reach outside of the mouth more than half an inch (1.3 cm). Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns.^[17]

Crias

A cria (from Spanish for "baby") is the name for a baby llama, alpaca, vicuña, or guanaco. Crias are typically born with all the females of the herd gathering around, in an attempt to protect against the male llamas and potential predators. Llamas give birth standing. Birth is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than 30 minutes. Most births take place between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours. This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. This birthing pattern is speculated to be a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Crias are up and standing, walking and attempting to suckle within the first hour after birth.^[18]^[19]^[20] Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female llama will only produce about 60 ml (2.1 imp fl oz) of milk at a time when she gives milk, so the cria must suckle frequently to receive the nutrients it requires.^[21]

Breeding situations

In harem breeding, the male is left with females most of the year.

For field breeding, a female is turned out into a field with a male llama and left there for some period of time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor, but the least useful in terms of prediction of a likely birth date. An ultrasound test can be performed, and together with the exposure dates, a better idea of when the cria is expected can be determined.

Hand breeding is the most efficient method, but requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen and breeding is monitored. They are then separated and rebred every other day until one or the other refuses the breeding. Usually, one can get in two breedings using this method, though some studs have routinely refused to breed a female more than once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each breeding and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the breeding is not successful within two to three weeks, the female is bred once again.

Pregnancy

Llamas at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile

Llamas should be tested for pregnancy after breeding at two to three, six and at least 12 weeks.

For "spit" testing, bring the potentially pregnant dam to an intact male. If the stud attempts to mate with her and she lies down for him within a fairly short period of time, she is not pregnant. If she remains on her feet, spits, attacks him, or otherwise prevents his being able to mate, it is assumed she is probably pregnant. This test gets its name due to the dam spitting at the male if she is pregnant.
For progesterone testing, a veterinarian can test a blood sample for progesterone. A high level can indicate a pregnancy.
With palpation, the veterinarian or breeder manually feels inside the llama to detect a pregnancy. Some risks to the llama exist, but it can be an accurate method for pregnancy detection.
Ultrasound is the most accurate method for an experienced veterinarian, who can do an exterior examination and detect a fetus as early as 45 days.

Spit testing with an intact male is generally free and is usually accurate. However, some hormonal conditions in females can make them reject a male when they are in fact not pregnant, and, more rarely, accept a male when they are pregnant. Progesterone tests can give a high reading in some females with a hormonal problem which are in fact not pregnant. Neither of the previous methods, nor palpation, can give a reasonably accurate idea of the age of the fetus, while an ultrasound procedure can. In addition, an ultrasound procedure can distinguish between pregnancy and misleading physical conditions, or between a live and dead fetus. The disadvantages of an ultrasound procedure are cost, some training in the use of ultrasound equipment is required, and not all veterinarians have the equipment needed to perform the examination.

Nutrition

Options for feeding llamas are quite wide; a wide variety of commercial and farm-based feeds are available. The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required. Young, actively growing llamas require a greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their smaller digestive tract capacities.^[22]

Estimated daily requirements^{[clarification needed (what units?)]} of bromgrass hay, alfalfa hay and corn silage on an as-fed and 100% dry matter basis for llamas from 22 to 550 pounds.^[23]
Body weight (lb)	Bromgrass		Alfalfa		Corn silage
Body weight (lb)	(as fed)	(dry matter)	(as fed)	(dry matter)	(as fed)	(dry matter)
22	0.8	0.7	0.5	0.5	1.5	0.4
44	1.3	1.1	0.9	0.8	2.6	0.7
88	2.1	1.9	1.5	1.3	4.3	1.2
110	2.6	2.3	1.7	1.6	5.2	1.4
165	3.4	3.1	2.3	2.1	6.9	1.9
275	5.0	4.5	3.4	3.1	10.1	2.8
385	6.4	5.7	4.3	3.9	12.9	3.6
495	7.8	7.0	5.3	4.8	15.8	4.4
550	8.5	7.6	5.7	5.2	17.0	4.8

Behavior

A pack llama in the Rocky Mountain National Park

Llamas which are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning are very friendly and pleasant to be around. They are extremely curious and most will approach people easily. However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling. Anyone having to bottle-feed a cria should keep contact to a minimum and stop as soon as possible.

When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and do sometimes spit at each other as a way of disciplining lower-ranked llamas in the herd. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They can always move up or down in the social ladder by picking small fights. This is usually done between males to see which will become dominant. Their fights are visually dramatic, with spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling and kicking, mainly to knock the other off balance. The females are usually only seen spitting as a means of controlling other herd members.

While the social structure might always be changing, they live as a family and they do take care of each other. If one notices a strange noise or feels threatened, a warning bray is sent out and all others become alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication.

The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going "mwa" is often a sign of fear or anger. If a llama is agitated, it will lay its ears back. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit.

An "orgle" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout the act of procreation – from 15 minutes to more than an hour.^[24]^[25]

Guard behavior

Llama guarding sheep on the South Downs in West Sussex

Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then.^[26]^[27] They are used most commonly in the in western regions of the United States, where larger predators, such as the coyote as well as feral dogs, are prevalent. Typically, a single gelding (castrated male) is used.

Research suggests the use of multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one. Multiple males tend to bond with one another, rather than with the livestock, and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas appear to bond more quickly to sheep or goats if they are introduced just prior to lambing. Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs.

Using llamas as guards has eliminated the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each year more than exceeds the purchase cost and annual maintenance of a llama. Although not every llama is suited to the job, most are a viable, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care.^[28]

History

Moche 100–300 AD at Lombards Museum

This sculpture, originating from the Chancay Valley and adjacent Chillón Drainage region (Late Intermediate Period), captures the llama's natural inquisitiveness.^[29] The Walters Art Museum.

Pre-Incan cultures

The Moche people frequently placed llamas and llama parts in the burials of important people, as offerings or provisions for the afterlife.^[30] The Moche culture of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics.

Inca empire

In the Inca empire, llamas were the only beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated by the Inca had long traditions of llama herding. For the Inca nobility, the llama was of symbolic significance, and llama figures were often buried with the dead.^[31] In South America, llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for the production of fiber and meat.^[32]

The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama.^[33]

Scholar Alex Chepstow-Lusty has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agriculture was only possible because of the use of llama dung as fertilizer.^[34]

Spanish empire

The first image of llamas in Europa, 1553

One of the main uses for llamas at the time of the Spanish conquest was to bring down ore from the mines in the mountains.^[35] Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day, as many as 300 thousand were employed in the transport of produce from the Potosí mines alone, but since the introduction of horses, mules, and donkeys, the importance of the llama as a beast of burden has greatly diminished.^[36]

According to Juan Ignacio Molina, the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen observed the use of chilihueques (possibly a llama type) by native Mapuches of Mocha Island as plow animals in 1614.^[37]

Fiber

Llamas have a fine undercoat which can be used for handicrafts and garments. The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall-hangings and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many different colors ranging from white or grey to reddish-brown, brown, dark brown and black.

Handspun llama yarn from Patagonia

Average diameter of some of the finest, natural fibers^[38]
Animal	Fiber diameter (micrometres)
Vicuña	6–10
Alpaca (Suri)	10–15
Muskox (Qiviut)	11–13
Merino	12–20
Angora Rabbit	13
Cashmere	15–19
Yak Down	15–19
Camel Down	16–25
Guanaco	16–18
Llama (Tapada)	20–30
Chinchilla	21
Mohair	25–45
Alpaca (Huacaya)	27.7
Llama (Ccara)	30–40

Notes

^ "Llama Characteristics". Nose-n-Toes. 2007-06-25.
^ "Llama Facts 1". Llamas of Atlanta. 2007-06-25.
^ "Llama FAQ". Twin Creeks Llamas. 2007-06-25.
^ ^a ^b "Llama". Oklahoma State University. 2007-06-25.
^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, "llama"
^ South Central Llama Association (2009-01-22). "Llama Facts 2".
^ Perry, Roger (1977). Wonders of Llamas. Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 7. ISBN 0-396-07460-X.
^ Murray E. Fowler (1998). Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1. ISBN 0-8138-0397-7.
^ "Lama". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
^ Kurtén, Björn; Anderson, Elaine (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 307. ISBN 0231037333.
^ Grayson, Donald K. (1991). "Late Pleistocene mammalian extinctions in North America: Taxonomy, chronology, and explanations". Journal of World Prehistory (Springer Netherlands) 5 (3): 193–231. doi:10.1007/BF00974990.
^ Colorado State University, Hypertexts for Biomedical Science: Dental Anatomy of Ruminants
^ Chen, B.X., Yuen, Z.X. and Pan, G.W. (1985). "Semen-induced ovulation in the bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).". J. Reprod. Fert. 74 (2): 335–339. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
^ Greta Stamberg and Derek Wilson (2007-04-12). "Induced Ovulation". Llamapaedia. ^{[dead link]}
^ L. W. Johnson (2007-04-17). "Llama reproduction". College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health.
^ Chris Cebra; David E. Anderson; Ahmed Tibary; Robert J. Van Saun, LaRue Willard Johnson (15 February 2014). Llama and Alpaca Care: Medicine, Surgery, Reproduction, Nutrition, and Herd Health. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-24291-2.
^ "The llama reproductive cycle". LlamaWeb. 2007-04-17.
^ The Department of Veterninary Clinical Sciences at Ohio State University (2002). Camelid Medicine, Surgery, and Reproduction for Veterinarians. Part II.
^ Long, Patrick O. (1996). Llama & Alpaca Neonatal Care. p. 112. ISBN 0-9646618-3-7.
^ Birutta, Gale (1997). A Guide to Raising Llamas. p. 327. ISBN 0-88266-954-0.
^ Linda March. "Llamas: A Different Kind of Pet". University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine. Retrieved 2009-05-15. ^{[dead link]}
^ Randy Sell (2007-04-17). "Llama". Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University.
^ Murray E. Fowler, DVM (1989). "Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids; Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco". Iowa State University Press.
^ Greta Stamberg and Derek Wilson (1997-09-02). "Behavior: Sounds". Llamapedia.
^ Brian and Jane Pinkerton (2008-05-17). "Llama Sounds". Humm Page.
^ International Llama Association. (1995). "Guard Llamas." ILA Educational Brochure #2.
^ Walker, Cameron. "Guard Llamas Keep Sheep Safe From Coyotes." National Geographic, June 10, 2003.
^ "Guard Llamas: An Alternative for Effective Predator Management".
^ "Llama Effigy". The Walters Art Museum.
^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997 ISBN 0-500-01802-2.
^ "Little Llamas". Inca culture. 2006-10-10.
^ Jean Larson, Judith Ho (2007-06-25). "Information Resources on the South American Camelids: Llamas, Alpacas, Guanacos, and Vicunas 1943–2006".
^ D'Altroy, Terence N. (2002). "The Inca Pantheon". The Incas. The People of America. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-631-17677-0.
^ Anning, Caroline. (2011-05-22) BBC News – Inca success in Peruvian Andes 'thanks to llama dung'. BBC.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-08-21.
^ Jared Diamond (2007-04-12). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The Show: Episode Two". PBS.
^ Jared Diamond (2007-04-12). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The story of ... Llamas". PBS.
^ Juan Bautista Ignacio Molina (1808). The geographical, natural and civil history of Chili, tr. by an American gentleman II. pp. 15–16. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
^ Beula Williams (2007-04-17). "Llama Fiber". International Llama Association.

References

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Llama". Encyclopædia Britannica 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links

"Llamapaedia Orgle Sound" (AIFF).
Llamas Close Up – slideshow by Life magazine
"Llama". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. The dictionary definition of llama at Wiktionary

English Journal

Successful use of camelid (alpaca) antivenom to treat a potentially lethal tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) envenomation in a dog.

Padula AM1, Winkel KD2.
Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.Toxicon.2016 May;114:59-64. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.02.018. Epub 2016 Feb 27.
This report describes a confirmed clinical case of tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) envenomation in a domestic dog that was successfully treated with a novel polyvalent camelid (alpaca; Llama pacos) antivenom. Samples collected from the dog were assayed for tiger snake venom (TSV) using a highly sens
PMID 26930223

The history of Old World camelids in the light of molecular genetics.

Burger PA1.
Tropical animal health and production.Trop Anim Health Prod.2016 Apr 5. [Epub ahead of print]
Old World camels have come into the focus as sustainable livestock species, unique in their morphological and physiological characteristics and capable of providing vital products even under extreme environmental conditions. The evolutionary history of dromedary and Bactrian camels traces back to th
PMID 27048619

Sarcocystis masoni, n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae), and redescription of Sarcocystis aucheniae from llama (Lama glama), guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos).

Moré G1, Regensburger C2, Gos ML1, Pardini L1, Verma SK3, Ctibor J2, Serrano-Martínez ME4, Dubey JP3, Venturini MC1.
Parasitology.Parasitology.2016 Apr;143(5):617-26. doi: 10.1017/S003118201600007X. Epub 2016 Mar 2.
There is considerable confusion concerning the species of Sarcocystis in South American camelids (SAC). Several species names have been used; however, proper descriptions are lacking. In the present paper, we redescribe the macroscopic sarcocyst forming Sarcocystis aucheniae and describe and propose
PMID 26932444

Combining somatic mutations present in different in vivo affinity-matured antibodies isolated from immunized Lama glama yields ultra-potent antibody therapeutics.

Klarenbeek A1, Blanchetot C2, Schragel G3, Sadi AS3, Ongenae N2, Hemrika W4, Wijdenes J5, Spinelli S6, Desmyter A6, Cambillau C6, Hultberg A2, Kretz-Rommel A7, Dreier T2, De Haard HJ8, Roovers RC9.
Protein engineering, design & selection : PEDS.Protein Eng Des Sel.2016 Apr;29(4):123-33. doi: 10.1093/protein/gzw003. Epub 2016 Mar 5.
Highly potent human antibodies are required to therapeutically neutralize cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) that is involved in many inflammatory diseases and malignancies. Although a number of mutagenesis approaches exist to perform antibody affinity maturation, these may cause antibody instab
PMID 26945588

Japanese Journal

パスの「愛」論 : 『二重の炎』にみる相反共存の述語状態 (特集オクタビオ・パス生誕100年(2))

山本哲士
iichiko : quarterly intercultural : a journal for transdisciplinary studies of pratiques (123), 123-127, 2014
NAID 40020164837

ラマの舌の走査型電子顕微鏡による観察

江村正一
醫學と生物學 : 速報學術雜誌 157(4), 470-474, 2013-04
NAID 40019676539

環太平洋生命文明圏

安田喜憲,米延仁志,山田和芳,那須浩郎,篠塚良嗣,森勇一,ホーフヒムストラ H.
第四紀研究 51(4), 285-294, 2012
環太平洋生命文明圏の存在を指摘する．今まで古代文明とみなされてきた文明は，メソポタミア文明やエジプト文明，インダス文明，黄河文明である．それらは，パンを食べ，ミルクを飲んで肉を食べるヒツジやヤギの乳用家畜を飼う文明であった．ところが，環太平洋にはこうしたヒツジやヤギを飼わない文明が存在した．それが長江文明であり，マヤ文明やアンデス文明である．長江文明の人々は米とタンパク質に魚を食べた．マヤ文明やア …
NAID 130004786822

開かれゆくアンデス牧民社会 : ペルー南部高地ワイリャワイリャ村を事例として

鳥塚あゆち
文化人類学 74(1), 1-25, 2009-06-30
本稿は、アンデス牧民社会が変容の過渡期にある現状を、牧民が伝統的に行ってきた農作物獲得方法の変化に着目し、変化の要因と過程をペルー南部高地のワイリャワイリャ村の具体的な事例を示すことによって明らかにすることを目的としている。高地に適したラクダ科動物の牧畜を専業的に行っているワイリャワイリャの人々は、耕作地を持たず主食である農作物を自給できない。また、家畜の乳を利用することもないため、作物の収穫期に …
NAID 110007331893

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「ラマ」「new world camelid」

「ラマ」

Llama
	A llama lying down.
Conservation status
	Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Artiodactyla
Family:	Camelidae
Genus:	Lama
Species:	L. glama
Binomial name
	Lama glama; (Linnaeus, 1758)
	Domestic llama and alpaca range; (according to Daniel W. Gade)

　　[★]

英: llama
関: 新世界ラクダ類

「new world camelid」

　　[★]

新世界ラクダ類

関: llama

[Characteristics-1] "Llama Characteristics". Nose-n-Toes. 2007-06-25.

[Facts-2] "Llama Facts 1". Llamas of Atlanta. 2007-06-25.

[FAQ-3] "Llama FAQ". Twin Creeks Llamas. 2007-06-25.

[OK_State-4] "Llama". Oklahoma State University. 2007-06-25.

[5] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, "llama"

[Numbers-6] South Central Llama Association (2009-01-22). "Llama Facts 2".

[7] Perry, Roger (1977). Wonders of Llamas. Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 7. ISBN 0-396-07460-X.

[8] Murray E. Fowler (1998). Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1. ISBN 0-8138-0397-7.

[ITIS-9] "Lama". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 5 January 2013.

[kurten-10] Kurtén, Björn; Anderson, Elaine (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 307. ISBN 0231037333.

[11] Grayson, Donald K. (1991). "Late Pleistocene mammalian extinctions in North America: Taxonomy, chronology, and explanations". Journal of World Prehistory (Springer Netherlands) 5 (3): 193–231. doi:10.1007/BF00974990.

[12] Colorado State University, Hypertexts for Biomedical Science: Dental Anatomy of Ruminants

[Chen-13] Chen, B.X., Yuen, Z.X. and Pan, G.W. (1985). "Semen-induced ovulation in the bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).". J. Reprod. Fert. 74 (2): 335–339. |accessdate= requires |url= (help)

[14] Greta Stamberg and Derek Wilson (2007-04-12). "Induced Ovulation". Llamapaedia. ^{[dead link]}

[15] L. W. Johnson (2007-04-17). "Llama reproduction". College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health.

[CebraAnderson2014-16] Chris Cebra; David E. Anderson; Ahmed Tibary; Robert J. Van Saun, LaRue Willard Johnson (15 February 2014). Llama and Alpaca Care: Medicine, Surgery, Reproduction, Nutrition, and Herd Health. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-24291-2.

[17] "The llama reproductive cycle". LlamaWeb. 2007-04-17.

[18] The Department of Veterninary Clinical Sciences at Ohio State University (2002). Camelid Medicine, Surgery, and Reproduction for Veterinarians. Part II.

[19] Long, Patrick O. (1996). Llama & Alpaca Neonatal Care. p. 112. ISBN 0-9646618-3-7.

[20] Birutta, Gale (1997). A Guide to Raising Llamas. p. 327. ISBN 0-88266-954-0.

[VETMED-21] Linda March. "Llamas: A Different Kind of Pet". University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine. Retrieved 2009-05-15. ^{[dead link]}

[22] Randy Sell (2007-04-17). "Llama". Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University.

[23] Murray E. Fowler, DVM (1989). "Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids; Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco". Iowa State University Press.

[24] Greta Stamberg and Derek Wilson (1997-09-02). "Behavior: Sounds". Llamapedia.

[25] Brian and Jane Pinkerton (2008-05-17). "Llama Sounds". Humm Page.

[26] International Llama Association. (1995). "Guard Llamas." ILA Educational Brochure #2.

[Geo-27] Walker, Cameron. "Guard Llamas Keep Sheep Safe From Coyotes." National Geographic, June 10, 2003.

[28] "Guard Llamas: An Alternative for Effective Predator Management".

[29] "Llama Effigy". The Walters Art Museum.

[30] Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997 ISBN 0-500-01802-2.

[Inca_Culture-31] "Little Llamas". Inca culture. 2006-10-10.

[Other_Culture-32] Jean Larson, Judith Ho (2007-06-25). "Information Resources on the South American Camelids: Llamas, Alpacas, Guanacos, and Vicunas 1943–2006".

[33] D'Altroy, Terence N. (2002). "The Inca Pantheon". The Incas. The People of America. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-631-17677-0.

[34] Anning, Caroline. (2011-05-22) BBC News – Inca success in Peruvian Andes 'thanks to llama dung'. BBC.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-08-21.

[35] Jared Diamond (2007-04-12). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The Show: Episode Two". PBS.

[36] Jared Diamond (2007-04-12). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The story of ... Llamas". PBS.

[37] Juan Bautista Ignacio Molina (1808). The geographical, natural and civil history of Chili, tr. by an American gentleman II. pp. 15–16. Retrieved 22 August 2011.

[38] Beula Williams (2007-04-17). "Llama Fiber". International Llama Association.

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llama