WordNet

incorporate within oneself; make subjective or personal; "internalize a belief" (同)internalise, interiorize, interiorise
learning (of values or attitudes etc.) that is incorporated within yourself (同)internalisation, incorporation

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〈方針・主義など〉‘を'自分のものにする,内面化する

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/03/02 19:13:49」(JST)

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Internalization (or internalisation) has different definitions depending on the field that the term is used in. Internalization is the opposite of externalization. Generally, internalization is the process of consolidating and embedding one's own beliefs, attitudes, and values when it comes to moral behavior. The accomplishment of this may involve the deliberate use of psychoanalytical or behavioral methods.

Internalization of norms might take place following religious conversion, or in the process of the more general moral conversion of the person.^[1] Internalization is also often associated with learning (for example, learning ideas or skills) and making use of what has been learned from then on. The notion of internalization therefore also finds currency in applications in education, learning, and training, and in business and management thinking.

Psychology and sociology

In sciences such as psychology and sociology, internalization involves the integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of others into one's own identity or sense of self. In psychoanalytic theory, internalization is a process involving the formation of the super ego.^[2] Many theorists believe that the internalized values of behavior implemented during early socialization are key factors in predicting a child's future moral character. The self-determination theory^[3] proposes a motivational continuum from the extrinsic to intrinsic motivation and autonomous self-regulation. Some research suggests a child's moral self starts to develop around age three.^[4] These early years of socialization may be the underpinnings of moral development in later childhood. Proponents of this theory suggest that children whose view of self is "good and moral" tend to have a developmental trajectory toward pro-social behavior and few signs of anti-social behavior.

In one child developmental study,^[5] researchers examined two key dimensions of early conscience – internalization of rules of conduct and empathic affects to others – as factors that may predict future social, adaptive and competent behavior. Data was collected from a longitudinal study of children, from two parent families, at age 25, 38, 52, 67 and 80 months. Children's internalization of each parent's rules and empathy toward each parent's simulated distress were observed at 25, 38 and 52 months. Parents and teachers rated their adaptive, competent, pro-social behavior and anti-social behavior at 80 months. The researchers found that first, both the history of the child's early internalization of parental rules and the history of his or her empathy predicted the children's competent and adaptive functioning at 80 months, as rated by parents and teachers. Second, children with stronger histories of internalization of parental rules from 25 to 52 months perceived themselves as more moral at 67 months. Third, the children that showed stronger internalization from 25 to 52 months came to see themselves as more moral and "good." These self-perceptions, in turn, predicted the way parents and teachers would rate their competent and adaptive functioning at 80 months.

Internalization as symptom

In behavioral psychology, the concept of internalization may also refer to disorders and behaviors in which a patient deals with stressors in manners not externally evident. Such disorders and behaviors include depression, anxiety, bulimia and anorexia.^[6]

Biology

In sciences such as biology, internalization is another term for endocytosis, in which molecules such as proteins are engulfed by the cell membrane and drawn into the cell.

Economics and management

In economics, internalization theory explains the practice of multinational enterprises (MNEs) to execute transactions within their organization rather than relying on an outside market. It must be cheaper for an MNE to internalize the transfer of its unique ownership advantages between countries than to do so through markets. In other words, the alternative to internalization through direct investment is some form of licensing of the firm's know-how to a firm in the target economy.

Finance

In finance, internalization can refer to several concepts. "When you place an order to buy or sell a stock, your broker has choices on where to execute your order. Instead of routing your order to a market or market-makers for execution, your broker may fill the order from the firm's own inventory – this is called 'internalization.' In this way, your broker's firm may make money on the "spread" – which is the difference between the purchase price and the sale price."^[7] For a related issue regarding trade execution, see payment for order flow.

Notes

^ Doran, Robert M. (2011), "Moral Conversion from and to" (PDF file, direct download 61.8 KB), What Does Bernard Lonergan Mean by 'Conversion'? (University of Toronto Press), p. 20, retrieved October 7, 2012
^ Corsini, R. (1999). The Dictionary of Psychology, USA: Taylor & Francis.
^ Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behaviour. New York, N.Y: Plenum Press.
^ Emde, R. N., Biringen, Z., Clyman, R. B. & Oppenheim, D. (1991). The Moral Self of Infancy: Affective Core and Procedural Knowledge. Developmental Review, 11, 251-270.
^ Kochanska, G., Koenig, J., Barry, R., Kim, S. & Yoon, J. (2010). Children's Conscience During Toddler and Preschool Years, Moral Self, and a Competent, Adaptive Developmental Trajectory. Developmental Psychology. Vol. 46, No. 5, 1320-1332.
^ Tandon, M.; Cardeli, E.; Luby, J. (2009). "Internalizing Disorders in Early Childhood: A Review of Depressive and Anxiety Disorders". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 18 (3): 593–610. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2009.03.004. PMC 3184300. PMID 19486840.
^ SEC.gov

References

Meissner, W. W. (1981), Internalization in Psychoanalysis, International Universities Press, New York.
Wallis, K. C. and J. L. Poulton (2001), Internalization: The Origins and Construction of Internal Reality, Open University Press, Buckingham and Philadelphia.
Oxford Open Learning GCSE Psychology - Module three: lesson nine.

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English Journal

Nickel oxide nanoparticles induce inflammation and genotoxic effect in lung epithelial cells.

Capasso L1, Camatini M2, Gualtieri M3.Author information 1Polaris Research Centre, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy. Electronic address: laura.capasso@unimib.it.2Polaris Research Centre, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy. Electronic address: marina.camatini@unimib.it.3Polaris Research Centre, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy. Electronic address: gualtieri.maurizio@gmail.com.AbstractNickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) toxicity has been evaluated in the human pulmonary epithelial cell lines: BEAS-2B and A549. The nanoparticles, used at the doses of 20, 40, 60, 80, 100μg/ml, induced a significant reduction of cell viability and an increase of apoptotic and necrotic cells at 24h. A significant release of interleukin-6 and -8 was assessed after 24h of treatment, even intracellular ROS increased already at 45min after exposure. The results obtained evidenced that the cytokines release was dependent on mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) cascade through the induction of NF-kB pathway. NiONPs induced cell cycle alteration in both the cell lines even in different phases and these modifications may be induced by the NPs genotoxic effect, suggested by the nuclear translocation of phospho-ATM and phospho-ATR. Our results confirm the cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory potential of NiONPs. Moreover their ability in inducing DNA damage responses has been demonstrated. Such effects were present in A549 cells which internalize the NPs and BEAS-2B cells in which endocytosis has not been observed.
Toxicology letters.Toxicol Lett.2014 Apr 7;226(1):28-34. doi: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.01.040. Epub 2014 Feb 3.
Nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) toxicity has been evaluated in the human pulmonary epithelial cell lines: BEAS-2B and A549. The nanoparticles, used at the doses of 20, 40, 60, 80, 100μg/ml, induced a significant reduction of cell viability and an increase of apoptotic and necrotic cells at 24h.
PMID 24503009

Fungicidal Mechanisms of Cathelicidins LL-37 and CATH-2 Revealed by Live-Cell Imaging.

Ordonez SR1, Amarullah IH, Wubbolts RW, Veldhuizen EJ, Haagsman HP.Author information 1Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division Molecular Host Defense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.AbstractAntifungal mechanisms of action of two cathelicidins, chicken CATH-2 and human LL-37, were studied and compared with the mode of action of the salivary peptide histatin 5 (Hst5). Candida albicans was used as a model organism for fungal pathogens. Analysis by live-cell imaging showed that the peptides kill C. albicans rapidly. CATH-2 is the most active peptide and kills C. albicans within 5 min. Both cathelicidins induce cell membrane permeabilization and simultaneous vacuolar expansion. Minimal fungicidal concentrations (MFC) are in the same order of magnitude for all three peptides, but the mechanisms of antifungal activity are very different. The activity of cathelicidins is independent of the energy status of the fungal cell, unlike Hst5 activity. Live-cell imaging using fluorescently labeled peptides showed that both CATH-2 and LL-37 quickly localize to the C. albicans cell membrane, while Hst5 was mainly directed to the fungal vacuole. Small amounts of cathelicidins internalize at sub-MFCs, suggesting that intracellular activities of the peptide could contribute to the antifungal activity. Analysis by flow cytometry indicated that CATH-2 significantly decreases C. albicans cell size. Finally, electron microscopy showed that CATH-2 affects the integrity of the cell membrane and nuclear envelope. It is concluded that the general mechanisms of action of both cathelicidins are partially similar (but very different from that of Hst5). CATH-2 has unique features and possesses antifungal potential superior to that of LL-37.
Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy.Antimicrob Agents Chemother.2014 Apr;58(4):2240-8. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01670-13. Epub 2014 Feb 3.
Antifungal mechanisms of action of two cathelicidins, chicken CATH-2 and human LL-37, were studied and compared with the mode of action of the salivary peptide histatin 5 (Hst5). Candida albicans was used as a model organism for fungal pathogens. Analysis by live-cell imaging showed that the peptide
PMID 24492359

Interaction of protamine with gram-negative bacteria membranes: possible alternative mechanisms of internalization in Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pink DA1, Hasan FM, Quinn BE, Winterhalter M, Mohan M, Gill TA.Author information 1Department of Physics, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS, B2G 2W5, Canada.AbstractThis study was concerned with the interaction between the cationic antimicrobial peptide, protamine (Ptm) and the cytoplasmic membranes of the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The objective of the study was to explain the observed paradox of internalization without permanent disruption of the cell envelope. We carried out Monte Carlo computer simulation of Ptm in an aqueous environment in the presence of ~100 mM NaCl and model membranes consisting of either (65:35) or (75:25) PE:PG molar ratios. The (75:25) model, representative of the gram-negative cytoplasmic membrane, showed that the Ptm center of mass remained at least 7 nm from the membrane surface leading to the prediction that Ptm would not internalize via disruption of the inner membrane. By using immunoelectron microscopy of Ptm-treated cells, we showed that Ptm internalization to the cytoplasm took place rapidly in the presence or absence of the outer envelope. Ultrastructural examination revealed no obvious morphological changes to cells that were treated with subinhibitory or bactericidal levels of Ptm. Reconstituted phospholipid bilayers were constructed and were unperturbed by Ptm treatment over a wide range of concentrations and applied transmembrane voltages. We conclude that in the cases of the cell envelopes of E. coli, S. typhimurium and P. aeruginosa, Ptm internalized by means independent of the phospholipid bilayer, most likely mediated by one or more membrane proteins such as cation-selective barrel-like proteins. Work is currently underway to test this hypothesis. © 2014 The Authors. Journal of Peptide Science published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Journal of peptide science : an official publication of the European Peptide Society.J Pept Sci.2014 Apr;20(4):240-50. doi: 10.1002/psc.2610. Epub 2014 Jan 22.
This study was concerned with the interaction between the cationic antimicrobial peptide, protamine (Ptm) and the cytoplasmic membranes of the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The objective of the study was to explain the observed paradox of
PMID 24453038