出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/07/01 19:14:01」(JST)
「フルーツ」はこの項目へ転送されています。
|
果物（くだもの、英: fruits フルーツ）は、食用になる果実。水菓子（みずがし）[注釈 1]、木菓子（きがし）ともいう。狭義には樹木になるもののみを指す。また、多年性植物の食用果実を果物と定義する場合もあり、農林水産省でもこの定義を用いている[1]。
一般的には、食用になる果実及び果実的野菜のうち、強い甘味を有し、調理せずそのまま食することが一般的であるものを「果物」「フルーツ」と呼ぶことが多い。
日本では果物はビタミン源や嗜好品や贈答品として利用されることが多いが、乾燥した国では水分の補給源として重要な役割を果たしている。他方、果実を乾燥させ、ドライフルーツとする例も多い。乾燥させた場合、糖分の濃度が高くなり、保存に適する。
料理に利用する例も多い。甘みや酸味を利用したり、種によってはタンパク質分解酵素を含む（パイナップル・パパイヤなど）ため、肉類が柔らかくなるなどの効果も持っている。
熱帯果樹では三大果物と呼ばれるのがマンゴー・チェリモヤ・マンゴスチンである。ドリアンは果物の王、マンゴスチンは女王とも言われる。
花床（花托とも）という花柄の先端にある部分が発達して果実になったもの。
子房壁が発達して果実になったもの。
果皮が乾燥して硬くなっており、種子と密着していない果実。中に1～数個の種子を含む。
ミカン科のミカン属、キンカン属、カラタチ属などに属する植物の総称。カラタチ以外は常緑性。
トロピカルフルーツ。亜熱帯から熱帯に分布する常緑性の果樹。フェイジョアのように耐寒性に優れるものもある。
農林水産省では、果物のように食べられる野菜を果実的野菜と分類し、区別している。
果物は動物が食べたがる果実である。果物と言われる果実は、生物学的な果実の分類の上ではいくつかの類型にまたがるが、いずれにしても、一般的な植物組織よりも柔らかく、糖分、ビタミンCなどを多く含む部分を持つ。また赤や黄色に着色する例が多い。
これは植物の繁殖に関する戦略として、動物に食べさせ、それによって種子散布を動物に担わせる、と言う方針によっている。植物は移動できないため、種子形成の際にこれが移動することは、花粉媒介と並んでその分布拡大や個体群の維持に置いて極めて重要である。そのために様々な戦略をとる植物が存在するが、動物に運ばせるのはその代表的な方法の一つである。そのための具体的な方法の一つが種子およびその周辺に動物の食料として魅力的な性質を与えることで、動物がそれを食べ、あるいは食べる目的で輸送を担う、と言うものである。種子そのものを食料とする例（ドングリなど）もあるが、それよりは周辺部を可食としたほうが種子の犠牲は少ない。これが果物というあり方である。
植物の一般的な組織、例えば葉や茎は、生きた原形質を含むから、それなりにバランスの取れた食料であり得る。しかし細胞壁がセルロースという丈夫な成分で作られていること、セルロースそれ自体もカロリーは高いものの消化の困難なものであることなど、植物を餌とするのは難度が高く、専門的な食植者は様々な特異な適応的な形質を持つのが普通である（すりつぶす歯、複数に分かれた複雑な消化管など）。それに対して果物の可食部は一般的な植物組織より、遙かに動物に利用されやすくなっている。糖分が多いのも、消化酵素が含まれるのも、動物がそれを利用する場合の利便を図っているものであり、それによってより多くの動物を引き寄せることを目指していると見てよい。当然、それは植物に取っては損失であるが、むしろ動物を誘引することで種子散布をより効率よく行うための投資である。果実が熟するに連れて赤や黄色などに着色するのも、動物にとって目立つようになり、食べ頃を知らせる信号の効果を持っている。
果物が美味しいのはその味が動物全般の好みに合致していることによる。人類が果実を好むのもこの戦略に乗ったものと考えてもよい。
果物の甘みは、フルクトース、グルコース、ショ糖などで構成されている。
L-グロノラクトンオキシダーゼ（ビタミンC合成酵素）遺伝子の活性は、いくつかの種の進化史のなかでそれぞれ独立に失われている。哺乳類ではテンジクネズミや直鼻猿亜目の霊長類がこの遺伝子の活性を失っており、そのためにビタミンCを合成できないが、その原因となった突然変異は別のものである。どちらの系統でも、活性を失った遺伝子は多数の変異を蓄積しつつ、偽遺伝子として残っている[2]。スズメ目の鳥類では、活性の喪失が何度か起こっており、またおそらくは再獲得も起こったために、種によってビタミンC合成能力が異なる。他に、コウモリ類もこの遺伝子の活性を失っている[3]。これらの動物が遺伝子変異によるビタミンC合成能力を失ったにもかかわらず継続的に生存し得た最大の理由は、これらの動物が果物等のビタミンCを豊富に含む食餌を日常的に得られる共生環境にあったためである。
霊長目でこの酵素の活性が失われたのは約6300万年前であり、直鼻猿亜目（酵素活性なし）と曲鼻猿亜目（酵素活性あり）の分岐が起こったのとほぼ同時である。ビタミンC合成能力を失った直鼻猿亜目にはメガネザル下目や真猿下目（サル、類人猿、ヒト）が含まれている[4]。果物との共生関係はヒトの直系祖先を含め少なくとも6300万年以上の共生関係にあったと考えられる。
果物は、野菜とともに癌予防の可能性が大きいものとされている[5][6]。
腎臓に障害がなくカリウムを摂取しても問題がなければ、カリウムを豊富に含む野菜や果物の摂取を増やすことにより高血圧の降圧が期待できる[7]。
果物は甘味と酸味を持ち、嗜好品的傾向が強い。また植物一般に比べて糖分が多く、カロリーが高く消化が優しい。そのため病人に果物をあてがう例が多々あり、見舞いには果物詰め合わせが定番である。
日本では『古事記」や『日本書紀』にタヂマモリが11代垂仁天皇の命により、非時香菓（ときじくのかぐのこのみ）を求めて常世の国に渡った。10年かかって葉附きの枝と果実附きの枝を日本に持ち帰ってきたが、垂仁天皇はすでに亡くなっていた。柑橘類でこれが水菓子（果実）の基になったとされる。タヂマモリは（水）菓子の神として祀られている。
メロンやリンゴなどの水分量が多い果物は生水が飲めない時代や地域で飲料水の供給源となっている。
日本果物商業協同組合連合会（日果連）は、果物を食べる習慣を広めるために1998年より毎月8日を「くだものの日」と制定している[8]。
果物ができるためには、原則的に受粉が必要であり、受粉が無ければ果物はできない。受粉は昆虫に依存しているが、現代の農業においては、特に養蜂家が飼っているミツバチに依存している割合が大きい。近年、北米やヨーロッパにおいて蜂群崩壊症候群（CCD）という、ミツバチが大量に失踪したり死んでしまう現象が頻発しており、北米のミツバチは数分の1が死んでしまった。もしもこれ放置しさらに拡大するとミツバチの全滅の可能性すらあり、果物の収穫高など農業全般に大きな悪影響を及ぼす可能性があると予見され、社会問題化した。そのリスクの大きさを考慮して、ヨーロッパの各国ではすでにネオニコチノイド系殺虫剤の使用禁止などの対策を行っている。米国ではネオニコチノイド系殺虫剤を製造している大手化学メーカーの政治的圧力のためか調査結果が隠蔽されたり、対策が後手にまわったり、不完全な対策にとどまる、などのことが起きている[要出典]。
果樹を栽培する時の樹の形。主幹及び骨格枝の配置で樹形が決まる。
枝の名称は、主として剪定作業をする際にそれぞれの枝の役割を明確化させるために使用される。この名称により剪定作業を説明することができる。また、摘果や摘蕾作業時にも使用される。
果樹栽培の基本は栄養生長と生殖生長を調整させ、安定生産を目的とするため、この両方の生長の均衡の維持基本となる。
果樹は形質が固定していないため、種子から育成した場合、親と異なる形質の苗木ができてしまう。したがって、種子による繁殖(実生法)は、台木の生産に利用させる。よって、果樹の苗木生産は栄養生殖によって行われる。方法は、接ぎ木・挿し木・取り木・株分け・ひこばい利用である。苗木生産ではないが、高接ぎによる成木の品種更新法もある。
樹種により、雌雄異株(キウイフルーツ)や自家不和合性 (植物)(リンゴ・ナシ・オウトウなど)や他家不和合性等の場合、受粉せず果実が結果しない場合があるため、授粉樹の設置や人の手により授粉させる必要がある。
温州ミカンや一部カキ等では受粉せずとも、結果をする。このような性質を単為結果性という。また、ジベレリンを用いてブドウや日向夏は、単為結果をさせ、種なし果実を作れる。
肥料を与えること。根群の水平分布は樹冠と同等かそれよりも広がっている。そのため、幹回りには養分を吸収できる細根が少なくため幹回りに施肥をしない。
| [ヘルプ] |
| ウィキメディア・コモンズには、果物に関連するメディアおよびカテゴリがあります。 |
| ポータル 果物 |
| ウィクショナリーにfruitの項目があります。 |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| この項目は、果物に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（プロジェクト:植物／Portal:果物）。 |
In botany, a fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, one or more ovaries, and in some cases accessory tissues.
Fruits are the means by which these plants disseminate seeds. Many of them that bear edible fruits, in particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition, respectively; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food.[1] Fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.
In common language usage, "fruit" normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, bananas, and lemons. On the other hand, the botanical sense of "fruit" includes many structures that are not commonly called "fruits", such as bean pods, corn kernels, wheat grains, and tomatoes.[2][3]
The section of a fungus that produces spores is also called a fruiting body.[4]
In the culinary sense of these words, a fruit is usually any sweet-tasting plant product, especially those associated with seeds; a vegetable is any savory or less sweet plant product; and a nut is any hard, oily, and shelled plant product.[5]
These culinary vegetables that are botanically fruit include cucurbits (e.g., squash, pumpkin, and cucumber), tomatoes, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and sweet pepper. In addition, some spices, such as allspice and chilies, are fruits, botanically speaking.[6] In contrast, rhubarb is often referred to as a fruit, because it is used to make sweet desserts such as pies, though only the petiole (leaf stalk) of the rhubarb plant is edible.[7] Edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., pine nuts, ginkgo nuts.
Botanically, a cereal grain, such as corn, wheat or rice, is also a kind of fruit, termed a caryopsis. However, the fruit wall is very thin, and is fused to the seed coat, so almost all of the edible grain is actually a seed.[8]
Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications. In botany, seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovaries or carpels that contain the seeds and a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed.[6]
The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, although in some species other tissues contribute to or form the edible portion. The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked.[9]
A fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower(s) forms all or part of the fruit.[10]
Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell.[11] After double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which involves the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma of flowers. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule and two sperm are transferred from the pollen to the megagametophyte. Within the megagametophyte one of the two sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, and the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process.[12][13] Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo.
As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules.[14] The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the flower fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms.[3]
There are three general modes of fruit development:
Plant scientists have grouped fruits into three main groups, simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and composite or multiple fruits.[15] The groupings are not evolutionarily relevant, since many diverse plant taxa may be in the same group, but reflect how the flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop.
Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary in a flower with only one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent (opening to discharge seeds), or indehiscent (not opening to discharge seeds).[16] Types of dry, simple fruits, with examples of each, are:
Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are simple fleshy fruits. Types of fleshy, simple fruits (with examples) are:
An aggregate fruit, or etaerio, develops from a single flower with numerous simple pistils.[17]
The pome fruits of the family Rosaceae, (including apples, pears, rosehips, and saskatoon berry) are a syncarpous fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary.[18]
Schizocarp fruits form from a syncarpous ovary and do not really dehisce, but split into segments with one or more seeds; they include a number of different forms from a wide range of families.[15] Carrot seed is an example.
Aggregate fruits form from single flowers that have multiple carpels which are not joined together, i.e. each pistil contains one carpel. Each pistil forms a fruitlet, and collectively the fruitlets are called an etaerio. Four types of aggregate fruits include etaerios of achenes, follicles, drupelets, and berries. Ranunculaceae species, including Clematis and Ranunculus have an etaerio of achenes, Calotropis has an etaerio of follicles, and Rubus species like raspberry, have an etaerio of drupelets. Annona have an etaerio of berries.[19][20]
The raspberry, whose pistils are termed drupelets because each is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits (such as blackberry) the receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit.[21] The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are contained in achenes.[22] In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils.
A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass.[23] Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.
In the photograph on the right, stages of flowering and fruit development in the noni or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia) can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a head is produced. After fertilization, each flower develops into a drupe, and as the drupes expand, they become connate (merge) into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarpet.
Berries are another type of fleshy fruit; they are simple fruit created from a single ovary. The ovary may be compound, with several carpels. Type include (examples follow in the table below):
Some or all of the edible part of accessory fruit is not generated by the ovary. Accessory fruit can be simple, aggregate, or multiple, i.e., they can include one or more pistils and other parts from the same flower, or the pistils and other parts of many flowers.
| True berry | Pepo | Hesperidium | Aggregate fruit | Multiple fruit | Accessory fruit |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blackcurrant, Redcurrant, Gooseberry, Tomato, Eggplant, Guava, Lucuma, Chili pepper, Pomegranate, Kiwifruit, Grape, Cranberry, Blueberry | Pumpkin, Gourd, Cucumber, Melon | Orange, Lemon, Lime, Grapefruit | Blackberry, Raspberry, Boysenberry | Pineapple, Fig, Mulberry, Hedge apple | Pineapple, Apple, Rose hip, Strawberry, Stone fruit |
Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially navel oranges), satsumas, mandarin oranges, table grapes, grapefruit, and watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination but most seedless citrus fruits require stimulus from pollination to produce fruit.
Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy which requires normal pollination and fertilization.[24]
Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the mode of dispersal of the seeds they contain. This dispersal can be achieved by animals, wind, water, or explosive dehiscence.[25]
Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent themselves from being eaten by animals or to stick to the hairs, feathers or legs of animals, using them as dispersal agents. Examples include cocklebur and unicorn plant.[26][27]
The sweet flesh of many fruits is "deliberately" appealing to animals, so that the seeds held within are eaten and "unwittingly" carried away and deposited at a distance from the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts are appealing to rodents (such as squirrels) who hoard them in the soil in order to avoid starving during the winter, thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to germinate and grow into a new plant away from their parent.[6]
Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like wings or helicopter blades, e.g. maple, tuliptree and elm. This is an evolutionary mechanism to increase dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny parachutes, e.g. dandelion and salsify.[25]
Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean to spread seeds. Some other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine.[25]
Some fruits fling seeds substantial distances (up to 100 m in sandbox tree) via explosive dehiscence or other mechanisms, e.g. impatiens and squirting cucumber.[28]
Many hundreds of fruits, including fleshy fruits like apple, peach, pear, kiwifruit, watermelon and mango are commercially valuable as human food, eaten both fresh and as jams, marmalade and other preserves. Fruits are also used in manufactured foods like cookies, muffins, yogurt, ice cream, cakes, and many more. Many fruits are used to make beverages, such as fruit juices (orange juice, apple juice, grape juice, etc.) or alcoholic beverages, such as wine, fruit beer, or brandy.[29] Apples are often used to make vinegar. Fruits are also used for gift giving, Fruit Basket and Fruit Bouquet are some common forms of fruit gifts.
Many vegetables are botanical fruits, including tomato, bell pepper, eggplant, okra, squash, pumpkin, green bean, cucumber and zucchini.[30] Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil. Spices like vanilla, paprika, allspice and black pepper are derived from berries.[31]
Fruits are generally high in fiber, water, vitamin C and sugars, although this latter varies widely from traces as in lime, to 61% of the fresh weight of the date.[32] Fruits also contain various phytochemicals that do not yet have an RDA/RDI listing under most nutritional factsheets, and which research indicates are required for proper long-term cellular health and disease prevention. Regular consumption of fruit is associated with reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease (especially coronary heart disease), stroke, Alzheimer disease, cataracts, and some of the functional declines associated with aging.[33]
Diets that include a sufficient amount of potassium from fruits and vegetables also help reduce the chance of developing kidney stones and may help reduce the effects of bone-loss. Fruits are also low in calories which would help lower one's calorie intake as part of a weight-loss diet.[34]
Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, different cultures have developed many different uses for various fruits that they do not depend on as being edible. Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements, such as unicorn plant, lotus, wheat, annual honesty and milkweed. Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including holly, pyracantha, viburnum, skimmia, beautyberry and cotoneaster.[35]
Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium which contains the drugs morphine and codeine, as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthesized.[36] Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches.[37] Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles.[38] Many fruits provide natural dyes, e.g. walnut, sumac, cherry and mulberry.[39] Dried gourds are used as decorations, water jugs, bird houses, musical instruments, cups and dishes. Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-lanterns for Halloween. The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur were the inspiration for the invention of Velcro.[40]
Coir is a fiber from the fruit of coconut that is used for doormats, brushes, mattresses, floortiles, sacking, insulation and as a growing medium for container plants. The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make souvenir heads, cups, bowls, musical instruments and bird houses.[41]
Fruit is often used as a subject of still life paintings.
For food safety, the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected. At the store, they should not be damaged or bruised and pre-cut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice. All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage. Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as utensils that have come in contact with raw foods. Fruits and vegetables, if they are not going to be cooked, should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood or eggs. All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours. After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness.[42]
Fruit allergies make up about ten percent of all food related allergies[43][44] Essential oils similar to those in citrus fruit peels are part of Balsam of Peru's composition.[45]
Most fruit is produced using traditional farming practices. However, the yield of fruit from organic farming is growing.[citation needed]
The plant hormone ethylene causes ripening of many types of fruit. Maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post harvest storage, with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life. All fruits benefit from proper post harvest care.[46]
| Food portal |
| Wikiquote has quotations related to: Fruit |
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.
| リンク元 | 「結実」「set a seed」「seed setting」「果実」「berry」 |
| 拡張検索 | 「kiwifruit」 |