WordNet

a collection of writings; "he edited the Hemingway corpus"
the main part of an organ or other bodily structure
relating to the pineal body; "pineal hormone"
having the form of a pine cone

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(特定の事に関する,または特殊の性質の)文書資料の集成 / (研究用に収集した)資料
松果腺[体]の・松傘状の

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/10/12 09:09:24」(JST)

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Pineal gland or epiphysis (in red in back of the brain). Expand the image to an animated version

The pineal gland, also known as the pineal body, conarium or epiphysis cerebri, is a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. The shape of the gland resembles a pine cone, hence its name. The pineal gland is located in the epithalamus, near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres, tucked in a groove where the two halves of the thalamus join. The pineal gland produces melatonin, a serotonin derived hormone which modulates sleep patterns in both circadian and seasonal cycles.^[1]^[2]

Nearly all vertebrate species possess a pineal gland. The most important exception is the hagfish, which is often thought of as the most primitive extant vertebrate.^[3] Even in the hagfish, however, there may be a "pineal equivalent" structure in the dorsal diencephalon.^[4] The lancelet Branchiostoma lanceolatum, the nearest existing relative to vertebrates, also lacks a recognizable pineal gland.^[3] The lamprey (considered almost as primitive as the hagfish), however, does possess one.^[3] A few more developed vertebrates lost pineal glands over the course of their evolution.^[5]

The results of various scientific research in evolutionary biology, comparative neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, have explained the phylogeny of the pineal gland in different vertebrate species. From the point of view of biological evolution, the pineal gland represents a kind of atrophied photoreceptor. In the epithalamus of some species of amphibians and reptiles, it is linked to a vestigial organ, known as the parietal eye which is also called the third eye.^[6]

René Descartes believed the pineal gland to be the "principal seat of the soul" (a mystical concept). Academic philosophy among his contemporaries considered the pineal gland as a neuroanatomical structure without special metaphysical qualities; science studied it as one endocrine gland among many. However, the pineal gland continues to have an exalted status in the realm of pseudoscience.^[7]

1 Structure
- 1.1 Blood supply
- 1.2 Innervation
- 1.3 Histology
- 1.4 Development
2 Function
- 2.1 Regulation of the pituitary gland
- 2.2 Drug metabolism
3 Clinical significance
- 3.1 Calcification
- 3.2 Tumours
4 Other animals
5 Society and culture
6 History
7 See also
8 Additional images
9 References
10 External links

Structure

The pineal gland is the only midline brain structure that is unpaired (azygous). It takes its name from its pine-cone shape.^[8] The gland is reddish-gray and about the size of a grain of rice (5–8 mm) in humans. The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is part of the epithalamus, and lies between the laterally positioned thalamic bodies and behind the habenular commissure. It is located in the quadrigeminal cistern near to the corpora quadrigemina.^[9] It is also located behind the third ventricle and is bathed in cerebrospinal fluid supplied through a small pineal recess of the third ventricle which projects into the stalk of the gland.^[10]

Blood supply

Unlike most of the mammalian brain, the pineal gland is not isolated from the body by the blood–brain barrier system;^[11] it has profuse blood flow, second only to the kidney,^[12] supplied from the choroidal branches of the posterior cerebral artery.

Innervation

The pineal gland receives a sympathetic innervation from the superior cervical ganglion. A parasympathetic innervation from the pterygopalatine and otic ganglia is also present.^[13] Further, some nerve fibers penetrate into the pineal gland via the pineal stalk (central innervation). Also, neurons in the trigeminal ganglion innervate the gland with nerve fibers containing the neuropeptide PACAP.

Histology

Pineal gland parenchyma with calcifications.

Micrograph of a normal pineal gland – very high magnification.

Micrograph of a normal pineal gland – intermediate magnification.

The pineal body consists in humans of a lobular parenchyma of pinealocytes surrounded by connective tissue spaces. The gland's surface is covered by a pial capsule.

The pineal gland consists mainly of pinealocytes, but four other cell types have been identified. As it is quite cellular (in relation to the cortex and white matter), it may be mistaken for a neoplasm.^[14]

Cell type	Description
Pinealocytes	The pinealocytes consist of a cell body with 4–6 processes emerging. They produce and secrete melatonin. The pinealocytes can be stained by special silver impregnation methods. Their cytoplasm is lightly basophilic. With special stains, pinealocytes exhibit lengthy, branched cytoplasmic processes that extend to the connective septa and its blood vessels.
Interstitial cells	Interstitial cells are located between the pinealocytes. They have elongated nuclei and a cytoplasm that is stained darker than that of the pinealocytes.
Perivascular phagocyte	Many capillaries are present in the gland, and perivascular phagocytes are located close to these blood vessels. The perivascular phagocytes are antigen presenting cells.
Pineal neurons	In higher vertebrates neurons are usually located in the pineal gland. However, this is not the case in rodents.
Peptidergic neuron-like cells	In some species, neuronal-like peptidergic cells are present. These cells might have a paracrine regulatory function.

In some parts of the brain and in particular the pineal gland, there are calcium structures, the number of which increases with age, called corpora arenacea (or "acervuli," or "brain sand"). Chemical analysis shows that they are composed of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium phosphate, and ammonium phosphate.^[15] In 2002, deposits of the calcite form of calcium carbonate were described.^[16] Calcium and phosphorus^[17] deposits in the pineal gland have been linked with aging.

Development

The human pineal gland grows in size until about 1–2 years of age, remaining stable thereafter,^[18]^[19] although its weight increases gradually from puberty onwards.^[20]^[21] The abundant melatonin levels in children are believed to inhibit sexual development, and pineal tumors have been linked with precocious puberty. When puberty arrives, melatonin production is reduced.^{[citation needed]}

Function

The primary function of the pineal gland is to produce melatonin. Melatonin has various functions in the central nervous system, the most important of which is to help modulate sleep patterns. Melatonin production is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.^[22]^[23] Light sensitive nerve cells in the retina detect light and send this signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), synchronizing the SCN to the day-night cycle. Nerve fibers then relay the daylight information from the SCN to the paraventricular nuclei (PVN), then to the spinal cord and via the sympathetic system to superior cervical ganglia (SCG), and from there into the pineal gland.

The compound pinoline is also produced in the pineal gland; it is one of the beta-carbolines.^[24]

Regulation of the pituitary gland

Studies on rodents suggest that the pineal gland influences the pituitary gland's secretion of the sex hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). In a study by Motta, Fraschini, and Martini (1967), a pinealectomy was performed on rodents. No change in pituitary weight was observed, however there was an increase in the concentration of FSH and LH within the gland. In this same study, administration of melatonin did not return the concentrations of FSH to normal levels, suggesting that the pineal gland influences the pituitary glands secretion of FSH and LH through some other transmitting molecule.^[25]

Drug metabolism

Studies on rodents suggest that the pineal gland may influence the actions of recreational drugs, such as cocaine,^[26] and antidepressants, such as fluoxetine (Prozac),^[27] and that its hormone melatonin can protect against neurodegeneration.^[28]

Clinical significance

Calcification

Calcification of the pineal gland is typical (1% of study participants) in young adults, and has been observed in children as young as two years of age.^[29] The calcified gland is often seen in skull X-Rays.^[29] Calcification rates vary widely by country and correlate with an increase in age, with calcification occurring in an estimated 40% of Americans by their 17th year.^[29] Calcification of the pineal gland is largely associated with corpora arenacea also known as "brain sand".

It seems that the internal secretions of the pineal gland inhibit the development of the reproductive glands, because, in cases where it is severely damaged in children, the result is accelerated development of the sexual organs and the skeleton.^[30]

Some studies show that the degree of pineal gland calcification is significantly higher in patients with Alzheimer's disease vs. other types of dementia.^[31]

Pineal gland calcification may also contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and may reflect an absence of crystallization inhibitors.^[31]

Calcium, phosphorus,^[17] and fluoride deposits in the pineal gland have been correlated with aging, showing that, as the brain ages, more deposits collect.^[32] By old age, the pineal gland contains about the same amount of fluoride as teeth.^[32] Pineal fluoride and pineal calcium are correlated.^[32]

Tumours

Tumours of the pineal gland are called pinealomas. These tumours are rare and 50% to 70% are germinomas that arise from sequestered embryonic germ cells. Histologically they are similar to testicular seminomas and ovarian dysgerminomas.^[33]

A pineal tumour can compress the superior colliculi and pretectal area of the dorsal midbrain, producing Parinaud's syndrome. Pineal tumours also can cause compression of the cerebral aqueduct, resulting in a noncommunicating hydrocephalus. Other manifestations are the consequence of their pressure effects and consist of visual disturbances, headache, mental deterioration, and sometimes dementia-like behaviour.^[34]

These neoplasms are divided into three categories, pineoblastomas, pineocytomas, and mixed tumours, based on their level of differentiation, which, in turn, correlates with their neoplastic aggressiveness.^[35] The clinical course of patients with pineocytomas is prolonged, averaging up to several years.^[36] The position of these tumours makes them very difficult or impossible to remove surgically.

Other animals

Pinealocytes in many non-mammalian vertebrates have a strong resemblance to the photoreceptor cells of the eye. Some evolutionary biologists believe that the vertebrate pineal cells possess a common evolutionary ancestor with retinal cells.^[37]

Pineal cytostructure seems to have evolutionary similarities to the retinal cells of chordates.^[37] Modern birds and reptiles have been found to express the phototransducing pigment melanopsin in the pineal gland. Avian pineal glands are believed to act like the suprachiasmatic nucleus in mammals.^[38]

In some vertebrates, exposure to light can set off a chain reaction of enzymatic events within the pineal gland that regulate circadian rhythms.^[39] Some early vertebrate fossil skulls have a pineal foramen (opening). This correlates with the physiology of the modern "living fossils," the lampreys and the tuatara, and some other vertebrates that have a parietal eye, which, in some of them, is photosensitive. The parietal eye represents evolution's earlier approach to photoreception.^[40] The structures of the pineal eye in the tuatara are analogous to the cornea, lens, and retina, though the latter resembles that of an octopus rather than a vertebrate retina. The asymmetrical whole consists of the "eye" to the left and the pineal sac to the right. "In animals that have lost the parietal eye, including mammals, the pineal sac is retained and condensed into the form of the pineal gland."^[40]

Fossils seldom preserve soft anatomy. The brain of the Russian Melovatka bird, about 90 million years old, is an exception, and it shows a larger-than-expected parietal eye and pineal gland.^[41]

In humans and other mammals, the light signals necessary to set circadian rhythms are sent from the eye through the retinohypothalamic system to the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) and the pineal gland.

Society and culture

Diagram of the operation of the pineal gland for Descartes in the Treatise of Man (figure published in the edition of 1664)

Seventeenth-century philosopher and scientist René Descartes was highly interested in anatomy and physiology. He discussed the pineal gland both in his first book, the Treatise of Man (written before 1637, but only published posthumously 1662/1664), and in his last book, The Passions of the Soul (1649) and he regarded it as "the principal seat of the soul and the place in which all our thoughts are formed."^[7] In the Treatise of Man, Descartes described conceptual models of man, namely creatures created by God, which consist of two ingredients, a body and a soul.^[7]^[42] In the Passions, Descartes split man up into a body and a soul and emphasized that the soul is joined to the whole body by "a certain very small gland situated in the middle of the brain's substance and suspended above the passage through which the spirits in the brain's anterior cavities communicate with those in its posterior cavities". Descartes attached significance to the gland because he believed it to be the only section of the brain to exist as a single part rather than one-half of a pair. Most of Descartes' basic anatomical and physiological assumptions were totally mistaken, not only by modern standards, but also in light of what was already known in his time.^[7]^[43]

The notion of a "pineal-eye" is central to the philosophy of the French writer Georges Bataille, which is analyzed at length by literary scholar Denis Hollier in his study Against Architecture. In this work Hollier discusses how Bataille uses the concept of a "pineal-eye" as a reference to a blind-spot in Western rationality, and an organ of excess and delirium.^[44] This conceptual device is explicit in his surrealist texts, The Jesuve and The Pineal Eye.^[45]

In the late 19th century Madame Blavatsky (who founded theosophy) identified the pineal gland with the Hindu concept of the third eye, or the Ajna chakra. This association is still popular today.^[7]

Author and researcher Rick Strassman has theorised that the human pineal gland is capable of producing the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) under certain circumstances.^{[citation needed]} In 2013 he and other researchers first reported DMT in the pineal gland microdialysate of rodents.^[46]

History

The secretory activity of the pineal gland is only partially understood. Its location deep in the brain suggested to philosophers throughout history that it possesses particular importance. This combination led to its being regarded as a "mystery" gland with mystical, metaphysical, and occult theories surrounding its perceived functions.

The pineal gland was originally believed to be a "vestigial remnant" of a larger organ. In 1917, it was known that extract of cow pineals lightened frog skin. Dermatology professor Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues at Yale University, hoping that a substance from the pineal might be useful in treating skin diseases, isolated and named the hormone melatonin in 1958.^[47] The substance did not prove to be helpful as intended, but its discovery helped solve several mysteries such as why removing the rat's pineal accelerated ovary growth, why keeping rats in constant light decreased the weight of their pineals, and why pinealectomy and constant light affect ovary growth to an equal extent; this knowledge gave a boost to the then new field of chronobiology.^[48]

Additional images

The pineal body is labeled in these images.

Mesal aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane.
Dissection showing the ventricles of the brain.
Hind- and mid-brains; antero-lateral view.
Median sagittal section of brain.
Pineal gland
Brainstem. Posterior view.

References

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^ Arendt J, Skene DJ (2005). "Melatonin as a chronobiotic". Sleep Med Rev. 9 (1): 25–39. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2004.05.002. PMID 15649736. Exogenous melatonin has acute sleepiness-inducing and temperature-lowering effects during 'biological daytime', and when suitably timed (it is most effective around dusk and dawn) it will shift the phase of the human circadian clock (sleep, endogenous melatonin, core body temperature, cortisol) to earlier (advance phase shift) or later (delay phase shift) times.
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^ Schmidt, F; Penka, B; Trauner, M; Reinsperger, L; Ranner, G; Ebner, F; Waldhauser, F (Apr 1995). "Lack of pineal growth during childhood". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 80 (4): 1221–5. doi:10.1210/JCEM.80.4.7536203. PMID 7536203.
^ Sumida, M; Barkovich, AJ; Newton, TH (Feb 1996). "Development of the pineal gland: measurement with MR". AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 17 (2): 233–6. PMID 8938291.
^ Tapp, E; Huxley, M (1971). "The weight and degree of calcification of the pineal gland". J Pathol. 105 (1): 31–39. doi:10.1002/path.1711050105. PMID 4943068.
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^ Lowrey, Phillip L., and Joseph S. Takahashi. "Genetics of the mammalian circadian system: photic entrainment, circadian pacemaker mechanisms, and posttranslational regulation." Annual Review of Genetics 34.1 (2000): 533-562.
^ Callaway, James C.; Gyntber, Jukka; Poso, Antti; Airaksinen, Mauno M.; Vepsäläinen, Jouko (1994). "The pictet-spengler reaction and biogenic tryptamines: Formation of tetrahydro-β-carbolines at physiologicalpH". Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry. 31 (2): 431–435. doi:10.1002/jhet.5570310231.
^ Motta, Marina; Fraschini, F.; Martini, L. (1967). "Endocrine Effects of Pineal Gland and of Melatonin.". Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 126 (2): 431–435. doi:10.3181/00379727-126-32468.
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^ "The Pineal Body". Human Anatomy (Gray's Anatomy). Retrieved 2011-09-07.
^ ^a ^b Mahlberg, R.; Walther, S.; Kalus, P.; Bohner, G.; Haedel, S.; Reischies, F. M.; Kühl, K. P.; Hellweg, R.; Kunz, D. (2008). "Pineal calcification in Alzheimer's disease: An in vivo study using computed tomography". Neurobiology of Aging. 29 (2): 203–209. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.10.003. PMID 17097768.
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^ . p. 1137. ISBN 9780323296359. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Bruce, Jeffrey. "Pineal Tumours". eMedicine. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
^ "Pineal Tumours". American Brain Tumour Association. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
^ Clark, Aaron J.; Sughrue, Michael E.; Ivan, Michael E.; Aranda, Derick; Rutkowski, Martin J.; Kane, Ari J.; Chang, Susan; Parsa, Andrew T. (2010). "Factors influencing overall survival rates for patients with pineocytoma". Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 100 (2): 255–260. doi:10.1007/s11060-010-0189-6. PMC 2995321. PMID 20461445.
^ ^a ^b Klein D (2004). "The 2004 Aschoff/Pittendrigh lecture: Theory of the origin of the pineal gland—a tale of conflict and resolution". J Biol Rhythms. 19 (4): 264–79. doi:10.1177/0748730404267340. PMID 15245646.
^ Natesan A, Geetha L, Zatz M (2002). "Rhythm and soul in the avian pineal". Cell Tissue Res. 309 (1): 35–45. doi:10.1007/s00441-002-0571-6. PMID 12111535.
^ Moore RY, Heller A, Wurtman RJ, Axelrod J (January 1967). "Visual pathway mediating pineal response to environmental light". Science. 155 (759): 220–3. doi:10.1126/science.155.3759.220. PMID 6015532.
^ ^a ^b Schwab, I.R.; O'Connor, G.R. (March 2005). "The lonely eye". British Journal of Ophthalmology. 89 (3): 256. doi:10.1136/bjo.2004.059105. PMC 1772576. PMID 15751188.
^ Kurochkin, Evgeny N.; Gareth J. Dyke; Sergei V. Saveliev; Evgeny M. Pervushov; Evgeny V. Popov (June 2007). "A fossil brain from the Cretaceous of European Russia and avian sensory evolution". Biology Letters. The Royal Society. 3 (3): 309–313. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0617. PMC 2390680. PMID 17426009.
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^ Wikisource:Ethics (Spinoza)/Part 5
^ Hollier, D, Against Architecture: The Writings of Georges Bataille, trans. Betsy Wing, MIT, 1989.
^ Bataille, G, Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927–1939 (Theory and History of Literature, Vol 14), trans. Allan Stoekl et al., Manchester University Press, 1985
^ Barker SA, Borjigin J, Lomnicka I, Strassman R (Jul 2013). "LC/MS/MS analysis of the endogenous dimethyltryptamine hallucinogens, their precursors, and major metabolites in rat pineal gland microdialysate". Biomed Chromatogr. 27 (12): 1690–1700. doi:10.1002/bmc.2981. PMID 23881860.
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External links

gland Stained brain slice images which include the "pineal gland" at the BrainMaps project
hier-280 at NeuroNames
Histology at BU: Endocrine System: pineal gland (illustration)
Anatomy Atlases, Microscopic atlas: Pineal gland
MedPix: Images of Pineal region
Studies of chinese original quiet sitting by using functional magnetic resonance imaging..
Detection of nighttime melatonin level in Chinese Original Quiet Sitting.

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Melatonin promotes adipogenesis and mitochondrial biogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes.

Kato H1, Tanaka G1, Masuda S2, Ogasawara J3, Sakurai T3, Kizaki T3, Ohno H3, Izawa T1,4.
Journal of pineal research.J Pineal Res.2015 Sep;59(2):267-75. doi: 10.1111/jpi.12259. Epub 2015 Jul 18.
Melatonin is synthesized in the pineal gland, but elicits a wide range of physiological responses in peripheral target tissues. Recent advances suggest that melatonin controls adiposity, resulting in changes in body weight. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of melatonin on adipogen
PMID 26123001

Melatonin attenuates impairments of structural hippocampal neuroplasticity in OXYS rats during active progression of Alzheimer's disease-like pathology.

Stefanova NA1, Maksimova KY2, Kiseleva E1, Rudnitskaya EA1, Muraleva NA1, Kolosova NG1,3,4.
Journal of pineal research.J Pineal Res.2015 Sep;59(2):163-77. doi: 10.1111/jpi.12248. Epub 2015 Jun 8.
Translational research on Alzheimer's disease (AD) has often focused on reducing the high cerebral levels of amyloid-β (Aβ) as a key characteristic of AD pathogenesis. There is, however, a growing body of evidence that synaptic dysfunction may be crucial for the development of the most common (spo
PMID 25988948

From a Suspicious Cystic Pineal Gland to Pineoblastoma in a Patient with Familial Unilateral Retinoblastoma.

de Jong MC1, Moll AC, Göricke S, van der Valk P, Kors WA, Castelijns JA, de Graaf P.
Ophthalmic genetics.Ophthalmic Genet.2015 Aug 21:1-3. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID 24940935

Japanese Journal

生物リズムに関わる松果体の光受容蛋白質

比較生理生化学 12(3), 260-269, 1995-10-09
NAID 10029594230

Elektronenmikroskopische untersuchung der quergestreiften muskelfasem im corpus pineale von wistar-ratten

Z Zellforsch 128, 227-240, 1972
NAID 30013190439

「松果体」

Pineal gland
	Diagram of pituitary and pineal glands in the human brain
Details
Precursor	Neural ectoderm, roof of diencephalon
Artery	posterior cerebral artery
Identifiers
Latin	glandula pinealis
MeSH	Pineal+gland
NeuroLex ID	Pineal body
TA	A11.2.00.001
FMA	62033
	Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy [edit on Wikidata]

　　[★]

英: pineal body (Z)
ラ: corpus pineale epiphysis cerebri
同: 松果腺,pineal gland (Z), conarium

Henry Gray (1825-1861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918.

臨床関連

松果体部腫瘍

「pineal」

　　[★]

松果体の

関: pineal body、pineal gland

「corpus」

　　[★]

関: corpuscle

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corpus pineale