出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2016/03/11 21:17:05」(JST)
この項目では、カメラ、事務機器製造メーカーのキヤノン株式会社について説明しています。その他のキャノン(カノン、Canon、Kanonなど)については「カノン」をご覧ください。 |
本社社屋
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種類 | 株式会社 | |||||||||||
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本社所在地 | 日本 〒146-8501 |
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設立 | 1937年(昭和12年)8月10日 (精機光学工業株式会社) |
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業種 | 電気機器 | |||||||||||
事業内容 | 電子部品 光学機器 |
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代表者 | 御手洗冨士夫(代表取締役会長兼社長) | |||||||||||
資本金 | 1747億62百万円 (2014年12月現在) |
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売上高 |
連結:3兆8000億2710万円 売上地域割合 |
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営業利益 | 連結:3552億1000万円 (2015年12月期) |
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純利益 | 連結:2202億09700万円 (2015年12月期) |
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純資産 | 連結:1兆4841億5700万円 (2015年12月期) |
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総資産 | 連結:2兆4379億2400万円 (2015年12月期) |
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従業員数 | 単独:2万6409人 (2014年12月期) |
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決算期 | 12月31日 | |||||||||||
主要株主 | キヤノン株式会社 18.1% 日本マスタートラスト信託銀行株式会社 4.6% |
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主要子会社 | 主な連結子会社を参照 連結子会社数263社(2015年12月期) |
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関係する人物 | 吉田五郎 御手洗毅 |
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外部リンク | canon |
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テンプレートを表示 |
キヤノン株式会社(英語: Canon Inc. 読みはキャノン)は、カメラ、ビデオをはじめとする映像機器、プリンタ、複写機をはじめとする事務機器、デジタルマルチメディア機器や半導体露光装置(ステッパー)などを製造する[1][2][3]。
芙蓉グループ。東証一部およびニューヨーク証券取引所(ティッカー:CAJ)上場企業である。特許戦略は世界的に定評[4][5][6][7]。製販が分離しており、マーケティング・販売業務は、地域統括販売会社(キヤノンMJ (CMJ)、キヤノンUSA、キヤノンヨーロッパ、キヤノン中国、キヤノンオーストラリア)を中心に展開されている。
1937年設立のOA機器の総合メーカー。主な事業内容として、オフィスビジネスユニット(オフィス複合機、レーザー複合機、レーザープリンターなど)、イメージングシステムビジネスユニット(レンズ交換式デジタルカメラ、コンパクトデジタルカメラ、デジタルビデオカメラ、交換レンズ、インクジェットプリンターなど)、産業機器その他ビジネスユニット(半導体露光装置、フラットパネルディスプレー露光装置、医療画像記録機器など)を展開している。 1949年の上場以来、年間での赤字は一度も無い。
連結業績のセグメント別売上高構成比は、オフィス55.8%、イメージングシステム36.0%、産業機器その他10.7%。地域別売上高では、国内より欧米市場など海外が大きなウエートを占めており、国内が19.4%、海外が80.6%となった。海外生産比率は同60%。 監視カメラ大手アクシス社の新規連結影響や為替環境から増収となり、継続的なコストダウン活動や収益性の高い新製品への移行などが奏功し売上総利益率は前年同期比で1.2ポイント上昇。アクシス社の連結化や新製品の開発に向けた費用がかさんだことに加え、円安による外貨建て営業費用が円換算後で増加したものの、吸収した。同四半期の商品別動向は、レンズ交換式デジタルカメラは日本、欧州地域で販売台数の回復傾向が見られたものの、その他地域では厳しい状況が続き、コンパクトデジカメも販売台数が前年同期を下回った。オフィス向け複合機やレーザープリンターの販売は、モノクロ機が低調だった一方でカラー機が堅調。半導体露光装置・FPD露光装置の販売台数は、好調な市況を背景に前年を上回った。</ref> 15年12月期の連結業績予想は、売上高3兆8,200億円(前期比2.5%増)、営業利益3,650億円(同0.4%増)を計画する。第3四半期決算発表時に従来予想を修正し、売上高を従来予想から1,100億円、営業利益を150億円それぞれ減額した。 TOPIX Core30の構成銘柄の一つでもある[8]。
海外での特許出願も重視しており、2014年末時点での特許・実用新案の保有件数は、世界全体で約9万2,000件。 海外出願に際しては、地域ごとに事業戦略や技術・製品動向を踏まえて出願戦略を綿密に立て、必要な国や地域を見極めた上で出願し、なかでも、ハイテク企業が多く、市場規模も大きい米国での出願に注力している。結果として近年登録数が増加し、2014年には日本企業として初めて4,000件を突破した。米国特許取得件数における日本企業中のキヤノンのランキングは10年連続1位を獲得している。
キヤノンの前身は、1933年に創立された精機光学研究所[9]。観音菩薩の慈悲にあやかりたいという気持ちから、1934年に完成した国産初の精密小型カメラの試作機を「KWANON」(カンノン)[10]、そのレンズを「KASYAPA」(カシャパ)と命名した[11]。KASYAPAは、釈迦の弟子のひとりである大迦葉(マーハ・カサーパ)に由来している[12]。
1935年、世界で通用するカメラのブランド名として、Canon(キヤノン)が採用された[10]。「聖典」「規範」「標準」という意味を持ち[13]正確を基本とする精密工業の商標にふさわしいことと、KWANONに発音が似ていることが、この名称を採用した理由とされている[10]。1956年に右上テンプレート内の形になり、1974年から色がキャノンレッドになっている[14]。
日本語における正式な表記は、「キヤノン」であり、小字を用いた「キャノン」ではない。拗音の「ヤユヨ」を小さく書かないのはかつて(第二次世界大戦前から終戦直後にかけて)は当たり前の表記法だったが、現在では一般的でない。この表記を続ける理由は、バランスを考慮して、小字の「ャ」の上の空白によって穴が空いたように感じられることを避けたためである[15]。
ライカが輸入され初めて間もない1932年、吉田五郎はライカII型を購入しそのコピー品を製作した。1933年10月にそれを持って義弟であった内田三郎の元を訪ね、ライカに匹敵する高級カメラ製造事業化を熱心に勧めたが、この時点で内田三郎は山一證券の外務員として法人相手の大口証券取引を扱っておりカメラ製造には全く興味を示さなかった。しかし証券売買で知り合った鮎川義介の事業観「資源が少ない我が邦では、材料の原価に占める割合が少なく、例えば光学精密機械とか純度の高い化学工業が有望である」に接して一転カメラ製造を決意し、3年の研究期間を設定し1933年11月研究所を立ち上げた。この研究所がキヤノンのルーツで、吉田五郎の発案で「精機光学研究所」という名称が決められた。場所は吉田五郎が乃木坂の自宅から歩いて数分の場所であった東京市麻布区六本木町62番、2012年現在ホテルアイビス六本木が建っている場所に存在した新築洋風三階建ての「竹皮屋ビル」を見つけて来てその一角を借りた。竹皮屋とは、オーナーの家系が江戸時代から竹の皮で被り笠を編んでいたことに由来する。日本光学工業(現ニコン)から精度にうるさい金子富太郎、型削り盤を扱う油山が移り、また腕が悪くて困り者であった旋盤工の加藤が最初期の従業員であった。そのうち外装部品の調達や金銭管理が必要になり、内田三郎が山一證券から部下であった前田武男を連れて来た。
カメラ開発は吉田五郎に一任され、内田三郎は言われるまま金を工面した。部品の外注は吉田五郎がトーキー製造をしていた頃に親しくなった一の橋の和田兄弟がやっていた機械工場や、狸穴の坂口時計歯車店に依頼していたが、図面で渡すより現物渡しで依頼したほうがかえってうまく行ったという。1933年、国産で初めての35ミリフォーカルプレーンシャッターカメラ「Kwanon(カンノン)」を試作した。開発は難航し吉田五郎在職中に1台も販売できていないが、アサヒカメラ1934年6月号には有名な「潜水艦ハ伊號 飛行機ハ九二式 カメラハKWANON 皆世界一」というコピーで広告を出した。7月号、8月号、9月号にも広告を出したがカメラの仕様が吉田五郎の試作機に対応して少しずつ変わっている。
吉田五郎がこだわった、コンタックスI型のようなボディー前面巻き上げ方式はベベルギアが必要になるが、坂口時計歯車店では歯切り機が良くなくうまく切れなかった。吉田五郎が夏の暑い日にフォーカルプレーンシャッター幕のべとつきで苦労していると、内田三郎は知人で第一師団麻布歩兵第一連隊中隊長だった山口一太郎大尉を連れて来て、山口一太郎は輸入物で軍用航空写真機用ゴム引き布幕を1反程持って来た。この布幕について小倉磐夫は小西六(コニカを経て現コニカミノルタホールディングス→コニカミノルタ)から持って来たと推定している。その他にも連動距離計、撮影レンズ、ヘリコイドの工作と問題山積の1934年11月、経理担当の前田が5000円の使途不明金があった旨内田三郎に告げ、吉田五郎は濡れ衣を着せられて退職した。吉田五郎の退職と前後し内田三郎は山口一太郎の指導を受け、手作りによる試行錯誤の手法から脱し設計図に従って試作し改良する手法へと転換した。光学系も日本光学工業の監督官をしていた次兄内田亮之輔のつてで日本光学工業の取締役顧問であった堀豊太郎を紹介してもらい、1934年9月内田三郎と前田武男は日本光学工業を訪れてレンズと距離計を依頼した。営業課課長山本茂治と民需品担当の浜島昇係長が応対してこれを引き受け、レンズ設計者の砂山角野を電話で呼んだ。軍需製品では実際の設計者の功績は明らかにされず軍人が評価されることが多いことに不満を感じていた砂山角野も乗り気となり、1935年始めにはニッコール50mmF3.5とニッコール50mmF4.5が完成した。
1935年(昭和10年)には「キヤノン」「Canon」を商標登録し[16]、無名でかつ販売ルートを持たないため近江屋写真用品と独占販売契約を結んでそのブランドであるハンザを冠し最初のカメラ製品、ハンザキヤノン標準型ニッコール50mmF3.5付きを1936年2月発売したが、ちょうどその時目の前の第一師団麻布歩兵第一連隊も舞台の一つとして二・二六事件が起こり、山口一太郎も収監された。驚いた精機光学は1936年6月目黒区中根町に移転した。
代 | 氏名 | 在任期間 |
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初代 | 御手洗毅[16] | 1942年 - 1975年 |
2代 | 前田武男[17] | 1975年 - 1977年 |
3代 | 賀来龍三郎[18] | 1977年 - 1989年 |
4代 | 山路敬三[19] | 1989年 - 1993年 |
5代 | 御手洗肇[19] | 1993年 - 1995年 |
6代 | 御手洗冨士夫[19] | 1995年 - 2006年 |
7代 | 内田恒二[20] | 2006年 - 2012年 |
8代 | 御手洗冨士夫[20] | 2012年 - |
原点である銀塩カメラやデジタルカメラ、写真レンズを中心に、デジタルビデオカメラ、双眼鏡、液晶プロジェクタなどを加えた映像機器の開発・製造・発売を手がけている。デジタル一眼レフ市場ではシェア1位の地位を時にニコンに逆転されるなど、熾烈な戦いが展開されている。 放送・業務用ビデオカメラ用レンズ分野では世界トップシェアを誇り、一時参入していたニコンの追随を許さなかったほどである。その他にも業務用として、XL-H1シリーズを始めとしたHDVカメラや監視カメラ用のCCTVレンズ、テレビ会議・Web会議システム、ネットワークカメラでも高いシェアを誇っている。 近年ではディスプレイ事業への進出を目指し、SEDや有機EL、薄型リアプロジェクションテレビの開発も行っている。このほか、中小型有機ELメーカーの日立ディスプレイズに出資している。
キヤノンは創立以来、究極の一眼レフカメラを追求し、自社開発のレンズ、CMOSセンサー、映像エンジンなどの革新的技術から生み出されるイノベーティブな製品が高画質画像で、世界をリードしている。レンズ交換式カメラのシェアは2015年末に44%で13年連続の1位。静止画向けとして、有効画素約1.2億画素の一眼レフカメラも開発。
キヤノンの交換レンズは、35mm判に対応する一眼レフ用のEF、TS-E、MP-Eレンズがそれぞれ49本、4本、1本、コンバーター類が3本。APS-Cサイズ一眼レフ専用のEF-Sレンズが13本、APS-Cサイズミラーレスカメラ用のEF-Mレンズが5本の、合計75本もの陣容を誇る。
コンパクトカメラは1961年の「キヤノネット」に始まる。2008年にはコンパクトデジタルカメラ生産1億台を達成。近年はデジカメの販売台数は縮小傾向。
高速データ処理、小型化、省電力化を実現した高品質フルHDビデオカメラを生産している。
2015年にはキヤノンは4K動画撮影に対応したビデオカメラの新シリーズ『XC10』を発表。 8K映像の撮影/表示が可能な業務向け「CINEMA EOS SYSTEM」のカメラやディスプレイも開発中。
記者会見・ニュース撮影など報道用途や屋内外のロケなど、番組制作のさまざまな場面で使用される。2015年末現在国内シェア1位を獲得している。 2020年の東京オリンピックに向けた取り組みを実施している。
カメラと事務機に次ぐ3本目の柱として進められている事業の一つ。 ネットワークカメラの世界シェアトップであるアクシスを子会社化。これまでにもビデオ管理システムを持つマイルストーンを買収するなど法人向けのネットワークカメラビジネスについて体制を整えている。
医療機器分野では、眼科用測定機器(眼底カメラ)、X線写真撮影機器(デジタルラジオグラフィ)、医療画像記録機器の開発・製造を手がけている。
フィルムや写真、文書などをデジタルデータ化するスキャン技術には、高精細スキャンを追求するキヤノンの高度な光学技術、電子デバイス技術、ソフトウェア技術などの独自技術が数多く盛り込まれている。現在はスキャナーを備えた複合プリンターが多くCCDモデルとCISモデルの2機種が販売されている。
各種プリンター (PIXUS、Satera、imagePROGRAF、SELPHY) や複写機/複合機(PIXUS、Color imageRUNNER、imageRUNNER、ファミリーコピア、ミニコピア、Satera MULTI FUNCTION PRINTER、imagePRESS)、イメージスキャナ/ドキュメントスキャナ (CanoScan、imageFORMULA)、プロジェクタ、ファクシミリ(キヤノフアクス)等といったOA機器やコンピュータ用周辺機器、関連ソフトウェアを開発・製造・発売している。なおファクシミリについては個人用を2006年12月に販売終了し、現在は業務用のみとなっている。さらに、オランダ・オセ社が傘下に入り、基幹系プリンター、連帳プリンター、オンデマンドプリンターなどのラインナップが強化されているほか、業務用フォトプリンター(DreamLabo)などの新規ジャンルも増やしている。
1980年代にインクノズル内のヒーターを加熱して発生させた泡(バブル)の圧力によりインクを噴出させることにより精密なイメージを印刷可能にした「バブルジェット方式」(サーマル方式インクジェット)を開発、1985年からこの方式を採用した「BJプリンタ」を発売。オフィスから家庭まで幅広く普及し、現在のキヤノンの売上げの大きな核となった。 現在ではピクサスブランドで展開、日本市場ではセイコーエプソンのカラリオと激しいトップシェア争いを繰り広げている。また現在では、PictBridgeなどに対応し、カメラからのダイレクトプリントも可能なものがある。なるべく独自技術の特許を他社に開放せず、技術を囲い込む戦術はキヤノンの特徴的なマーケティング戦略であると言える。また、ポスター等の印刷を行う大判プリンターは「imagePROGRAF」ブランドとして販売している。imagePROGRAFは、「綴プロジェクト(文化財未来継承プロジェクト)」の出力機器として使用されている。高速・大量の写真・アルバムの印刷を行う業務用フォトプリンターは「DreamLabo」ブランドとして販売している。インクジェットプリンタ/複合機「PIXUS」と機動戦士ガンダムのコラボレーション、「PIXUS GUNDAM PROJECT」の"機動"として、シャア専用カスタマイズキット付きの限定モデルを販売した。
基本性能である高速出力・高画質・低コストをさらに進化させ、ソフトウエアを拡充することで、生産性と出力ワークフローの利便性が向上している。CAD/GIS図面を出力する建築、土木、製造、官公庁などの大規模ネットワーク環境から中規模ワークグループだけでなく、高品位ポスターを出力する流通業や小売店、教育現場など、幅広い大判プリントニーズに対応している。大判機の中心に据える水性インクジェットタイプは、世界シェアが台数ベースで2014年末現在27%で2位。
リテイルフォト業界向けとして新展開する業務用フォトプリンター「DreamLabo」には、家庭用インクジェットプリンターから業務用デジタル複合機まで、幅広い製品開発をつづけてきたキヤノンのプリンター技術が投入されている。一般的なプリンターはCMYKの4色、画質を重視する業務用プリンターでも6色での印刷が主流だが、キヤノン「DreamLabo 5000」は、CMYKの4色に加え、更にフォトシアン、フォトマゼンタ、グレーを加えた7色のインクで印刷を行う。これにより、従来のカラーレーザー印刷では表現できなかった写真画質が表現できるようになった。銀塩方式の「立体感」「重厚感」とインクジェット方式の「透明感」。それぞれの強みを融合したインクジェットならではの広い再現色域を活かして、より豊かな深みのある色表現を実現している。
1960年代に複写機の開発を開始。それまで米・ゼロックスが特許を盾に市場を独占していたがゼロックスの特許を全く使わずに、独自の電子写真方式「NP方式」の開発に成功、1969年に初の製品を発売した[注 1]。以後複写機の分野ではゼロックスと並ぶシェアを占めた。 現在ではほとんどの製品がデジタル複合機に移行し、「imageRUNNER(イメージランナー、iR(カラーはiRC))」「imagePRESS(イメージプレス)」のブランドで発売している。また、電子写真技術をもとにレーザープリンター (LBP) を開発し、かつては「LASER SHOT(レーザショット)」、現在では「Satera(サテラ)」のブランドで発売している。なお、レーザープリンター商品はオンデマンド定着式[28]を採用しており省エネに貢献している。 これら製品に関連し、文書管理やプリンター管理、帳票設計などのソフトウエア製品群を、「imageWARE(イメージウェア、iW)」ブランドで開発・販売している。
オフィスドキュメントの入出力・保管・送受信など、あらゆる業務をこなす複合機。ネットワーク技術をはじめ、ドキュメント処理技術やソフトウェア技術など、キヤノンの先進の技術が投入されている。レーザープリンター、オフィス向け複合機、デジタルプロダクションプリンティングシステムなどは、同じ原理でプリントを行っている
デジタルプロダクションプリンティングシステム「imagePRESS」は、キヤノン初のプロフェッショナル向けカラーオンデマンド機で、オフセット印刷に迫る高画質・高精細を実現し、少部数印刷にも対応できる生産性と優れた耐久性・信頼性を備えている。
従来より小型化・軽量化に成功した業務用4Kプロジェクター『4K500ST』を2015年から発売している。解像度は4,096×2,400、輝度は5,000ルーメン。シミュレーターやデジタルサイネージ、医療、美術館など高画質を望む市場をターゲットにしている。
製造機器分野では、半導体露光装置(ステッパーなど)および液晶基板露光装置の開発・製造を手掛けており、キヤノンの半導体製造装置は世界の企業の 半導体・製造装置メーカー売上高ランキングで08年度は6位につけている。
半導体露光装置市場でキヤノンは、オランダのASML(ASML.AS)とニコン (7731.T)との技術競争に出遅れて市場シェアが低迷している。2014年最先端の半導体製造技術を持つ米国モレキュラーインプリント社(テキサス州)を買収し次世代装置の投入で巻き返しを図る。製品の量産化は2015年以降になる。
大型液晶テレビに使用される液晶パネルは、大型ガラス基板に微細な画素回路を露光する技術でつくられるが、キヤノンのFPD露光装置は、57型ワイドテレビの一括露光も可能。2015年末現在この装置のトップメーカーとなっている。
光学コンポーネントを開発・製造・販売している。また、バーチャルリアリティ技術の一種である拡張現実/複合現実(en:Mixed reality)を実現する機器(ヘッドマウントディスプレイ)やプラットフォームを開発している。[29]
キヤノン株式会社からの事業移管、あるいはグループ会社の自主事業として、関連領域のビジネスを展開している。
キヤノンが世界で初めてテンキー式入力の電卓の製品化に成功した。現在は、キヤノン電子が、ハンディターミナルを、キヤノン電産香港有限公司が電卓・電子辞書などのパーソナル情報機器を、キヤノンファインテックおよびニスカがRFIDカードプリンターを、それぞれ開発・製造・販売している。電子辞書はwordtank(ワードタンク)シリーズとして好評を博している。
キヤノンMJグループ をはじめ、キヤノン電子グループ、Canon Information and Imaging Solutions(キヤノンUSAグループ)などの関係会社が、インターネットサービスやSI、各種ソフトウェアの販売、エンベデッド、BPOなどのITサービス事業を展開している。また、画像処理やネットワーク接続技術(BluetoothやIEEE.802.11)を得意とするキヤノンアイテックおよびキヤノンイメージングシステムズでもエンベデット事業を手掛けているほか、キヤノン製品の開発関連会社[30]にも、ソフトウエア開発に携わる企業が多くある。
真空技術やメカトロ技術をコアに、半導体をはじめディスプレイや太陽電池、ストレージなどのさまざまな製造装置を開発・製造・販売している。これらのビジネスは、キヤノンマシナリーやキヤノンアネルバ、トッキの各社が中心となって展開されており、キヤノングループの生産自動化や内製化の推進にも貢献している。また、キヤノンMJ では、RAVE社やmattoson、Zygoなどの日本国外メーカーの関連装置を輸入・販売している。
モータ、TMFセンサ、産業用磁気ヘッド、コンタクトイメージセンサ、電子回路などのコンポーネント製品を開発・製造・販売している。これらのビジネスは、キヤノン電子やキヤノンプレシジョン、キヤノン・コンポーネンツ、ニスカなどが展開している。
眼科機器や遺伝子診断機器、血圧計などの医療機器を開発・製造・販売している。これらのビジネスは、OPTOPOL Technology S.A.やU.S Life Science、Virtual Imaging、キヤノンライフケアソリューションズ、エルクエストなどが展開している。また、キヤノンMJがフィリップス社製AEDの販売を行っている。
イオンビーム (IBE) 関連装置、業務用生ごみ処理装置、スピーカーなどの開発・製造・販売を行っている。
事業所は関東地方に集中しており、とりわけ東京都・神奈川県境の多摩川沿いに集中している。関東地方以外では、大分県、静岡県に事業所がある。
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2015年4月現在のもの。
キヤノンではCMイメージキャラクターを「コミュニケーションパートナー」という名称で呼んでいる。
※過去に放映されていたPIXUSのCM曲は「Q Department」というクリエイター集団作曲のオリジナル曲を使っている(未音源化)。
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A cannon (plural: cannon or cannons) is any piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive-based propellants to launch a projectile. Cannon vary in calibre, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees, depending on their intended use on the battlefield. The word cannon is derived from several languages, in which the original definition can usually be translated as tube, cane, or reed. In the modern era, the term cannon has fallen into decline, replaced by "guns" or "artillery" if not a more specific term such as "mortar" or "howitzer", except for in the field of aerial warfare, where it is often used as shorthand for autocannon.
First invented in China, cannon were among the earliest forms of gunpowder artillery, and over time replaced siege engines—among other forms of ageing weaponry—on the battlefield. In the Middle East, the first use of the hand cannon is argued to be during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Mamluks and Mongols. The first cannon in Europe were in use in Iberia by the mid-13th century. It was during this period, the Middle Ages, that cannon became standardized, and more effective in both the anti-infantry and siege roles. After the Middle Ages most large cannon were abandoned in favour of greater numbers of lighter, more maneuverable pieces. In addition, new technologies and tactics were developed, making most defences obsolete; this led to the construction of star forts, specifically designed to withstand artillery bombardment though these too (along with the Martello Tower) would find themselves rendered obsolete when explosive and armour piercing rounds made even these types of fortifications vulnerable.
Cannon also transformed naval warfare in the early modern period, as European navies took advantage of their firepower. As rifling became commonplace, the accuracy and destructive power of cannon was significantly increased, and they became deadlier than ever, both to infantry who belatedly had to adopt different tactics, and to ships, which had to be armoured. In World War I, the majority of combat fatalities were caused by artillery; they were also used widely in World War II. Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War, although the importance of the larger calibre weapons has declined with the development of missiles.
Cannon was widely known as the earliest form of a gun and artillery, before early firearms were invented.
Cannon is derived from the Old Italian word cannone, meaning "large tube", which came from Latin canna, in turn originating from the Greek κάννα (kanna), "reed",[1] and then generalized to mean any hollow tube-like object; cognate with Akkadian term qanu and Hebrew qāneh, meaning "tube" or "reed".[2][3][4] The word has been used to refer to a gun since 1326 in Italy, and 1418 in England. Both Cannons and Cannon are correct and in common usage, with one or the other having preference in different parts of the English-speaking world. Cannons is more common in North America and Australia, while cannon as plural is more common in the United Kingdom.[2][5]
Cannon in general have the form of a truncated cone with an internal cylindrical bore for holding an explosive charge and a projectile. The thickest, strongest, and closed part of the cone is located near the explosive charge. As any explosive charge will dissipate in all directions equally, the thickest portion of the cannon is useful for containing and directing this force. The backward motion of the cannon as its projectile leaves the bore is termed its recoil and the effectiveness of the cannon can be measured in terms of how much this response can be diminished, though obviously diminishing recoil through increasing the overall mass of the cannon means decreased mobility.
Field artillery cannon in Europe and the Americas were initially made most often of bronze, though later forms were constructed of cast iron and eventually steel.[6]:61 Bronze has several characteristics that made it preferable as a construction material: although it is relatively expensive, does not always alloy well, and can result in a final product that is "spongy about the bore",[6]:61 bronze is more flexible than iron and therefore less prone to bursting when exposed to high pressure; cast iron cannon are less expensive and more durable generally than bronze and withstand being fired more times without deteriorating. However, cast iron cannon have a tendency to burst without having shown any previous weakness or wear, and this makes them more dangerous to operate.
The older and more-stable forms of cannon were muzzle-loading as opposed to breech-loading— in order to be used they had to have their ordnance packed down the bore through the muzzle rather than inserted through the breech.
The following terms refer to the components or aspects of a classical western cannon (c. 1850) as illustrated here.[6]:66 In what follows, the words near, close, and behind will refer to those parts towards the thick, closed end of the piece, and far, front, in front of, and before to the thinner, open end.
The main body of a cannon consists of three basic extensions— the foremost and the longest is called the chase, the middle portion is the reinforce, and the closest and briefest portion is the cascabel or cascable.
To pack a muzzle-loading cannon, first gunpowder is poured down the bore. This is followed by a layer of wadding (often nothing more than paper), and then the cannonball itself. A certain amount of windage allows the ball to fit down the bore, though the greater the windage the less efficient the propulsion of the ball when the gunpowder is ignited. To fire the cannon, the fuse located in the vent is lit, quickly burning down to the gunpowder, which then explodes violently, propelling wadding and ball down the bore and out of the muzzle. A small portion of exploding gas also escapes through the vent, but this does not dramatically affect the total force exerted on the ball.
Any large, smoothbore, muzzle-loading gun—used before the advent of breech-loading, rifled guns—may be referred to as a cannon, though once standardized names were assigned to different sized cannon, the term specifically referred to a gun designed to fire a 42-pound (19 kg) shot, as opposed to a demi-cannon - 32 pounds (15 kg), culverin - 18 pounds (8.2 kg), or demi-culverin - 9 pounds (4.1 kg). Gun specifically refers to a type of cannon that fires projectiles at high speeds, and usually at relatively low angles;[7] they have been used in warships,[8] and as field artillery.[9] The term cannon is also used for autocannon, a modern repeating weapon firing explosive projectiles. Cannon have been used extensively in fighter aircraft since World War II,[10] and in place of machine guns on land vehicles.[11]
The invention of the cannon, driven by gunpowder, was first developed in China and later spread to the Islamic world and Europe. Like small arms, cannon are a descendant of the fire lance, a gunpowder-filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a flamethrower in China.[14] Shrapnel was sometimes placed in the barrel, so that it would fly out along with the flames.[15] The first documented battlefield use of fire lances took place in 1132 when Chen Gui used them to defend De'an from attack by the Jurchen Jin.[16][17] Eventually, the paper and bamboo of which fire lance barrels were originally constructed came to be replaced by metal.[18] It has been disputed at which point flame-projecting cannon were abandoned in favour of missile-projecting ones, as words meaning either incendiary or explosive are commonly translated as gunpowder.[19] The earliest known depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, dating to the 12th century that portrays a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard, firing flames and a ball.[18][20] The oldest surviving gun, found in Acheng, Heilongjiang, and dated to no later than 1290, is 34 cm long with a muzzle bore diameter of 2.5 cm (1 in) and weighs 3.5 kg.[21][22] The second oldest, dated to 1332 is 35.3 cm long, a muzzle bore diameter of 10.5 cm (4 in) and weighs 6.94 kg; both are made of bronze.[23][22]
The earliest known illustration of a cannon is dated to 1326.[24] In his 1341 poem, The Iron Cannon Affair, one of the first accounts of the use of gunpowder artillery in China, Xian Zhang wrote that a cannonball fired from an eruptor could "pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse, and can even transfix several persons at once."[25]
Joseph Needham suggests that the proto-shells described in the Huolongjing may be among the first of their kind.[26] The weapon was later taken up by both the Mongol conquerors and the Koreans. Chinese soldiers fighting under the Mongols appear to have used hand cannon in Manchurian battles during 1288, a date deduced from archaeological findings at battle sites.[27] The Ming Chinese also mounted over 3,000 cast bronze and iron cannon on the Great Wall of China, to defend against the Mongols.
Cannon were used by Ming dynasty forces at the Battle of Lake Poyang.[28] Ming dynasty era ships had bronze cannon. One shipwreck in Shandong had a cannon dated to 1377 and an anchor dated to 1372.[29] From the 13th to 15th centuries cannon armed Chinese ships also travelled throughout Southeast Asia.[30]
In the 1593 Siege of Pyongyang, 40,000 Ming troops deployed a variety of cannon to bombard an equally large Japanese army. Despite both forces having similar numbers, the Japanese were easily defeated due to the Ming cannon. Throughout the Seven Year War in Korea, the Chinese-Korean coalition used artillery widely, in both land and naval battles, including on the Turtle Ships of Yi Sun-sin.[31][32]
Arabic manuscripts dated from the 14th century document the use of the hand cannon, a forerunner of the handgun, in the Arabic world.[33] Ahmad Y. al-Hassan argues that these manuscripts are copies of earlier manuscripts and reported on hand-held cannon being used by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.[34] Al-Hassan also interprets Ibn Khaldun as reporting cannon being used as siege machines by the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274.[34] Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204–1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for an earlier incendiary naphtha.[35][36] The Mamluks had certainly acquired siege cannon by the 1360s, and possibly as early as 1320.[35]
Sixty-eight super-sized bombards referred to as Great Turkish Bombards were used by Mehmed II to capture Constantinople in 1453. Orban, a Hungarian cannon engineer, is credited with introducing the cannon from Central Europe to the Ottomans.[37] These cannon could fire heavy stone balls a mile, and the sound of their blast could reportedly be heard from a distance of 10 miles (16 km).[37] Shkodran historian Marin Barleti discusses Turkish bombards at length in his book De obsidione Scodrensi (1504), describing the 1478–79 siege of Shkodra in which eleven bombards and two mortars were employed.
The similar Dardanelles Guns (for the location) were created by Munir Ali in 1464 and were still in use during the Anglo-Turkish War (1807–1809).[38] These were cast in bronze into two parts, the chase (the barrel) and the breech, which combined weighed 18.4 tonnes.[39] The two parts were screwed together using levers to facilitate moving it.
Fathullah Shirazi, a Persian-Indian who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire, developed a volley gun in the 16th century.[40]
Jaivan Cannon - World's largest cannon on wheels, patronized by Muhammad Shah and cast by Jai Singh II.
Malik E Maidan, was effectively utilized in the favor of the Deccan sultanates, and was the largest cannon operated during the Battle of Talikota.
Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces at the battle of Srirangapatna.
Large cannon in Bidar fort.
In Europe, one of the first mentions of gunpowder use appears in a passage found in Roger Bacon's Opus Maius and Opus Tertium in what has been interpreted as being firecrackers. In the early 20th century, a British artillery officer proposed that another work tentatively attributed to Bacon, Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magiae contained an encrypted formula for gunpowder. These claims have been disputed by historians of science.[41] In any case, the formula claimed to have been decrypted is not useful for firearms use or even firecrackers, burning slowly and producing mostly smoke.[42][43]
The first confirmed use of cannon in Europe was in southern Iberia, by the Moors, in the Siege of Cordoba in 1280.[44] By this time, hand guns were probably in use, as scopettieri—"gun bearers"—were mentioned in conjunction with crossbowmen, in 1281. In Iberia, the "first artillery-masters on the Peninsula" were enlisted, at around the same time.[45]
The first metal cannon was the pot-de-fer. Loaded with an arrow-like bolt that was probably wrapped in leather to allow greater thrusting power, it was set off through a touch hole with a heated wire. This weapon, and others similar, were used by both the French and English during the Hundred Years' War, when cannon saw their first real use on the European battlefield.[44] While still a relatively rarely-used weapon, cannon were employed in increasing numbers during the war. The Battle of Arnemuiden, fought on 23 September 1338, was the first naval battle using artillery, as the English ship Christofer had three cannon and one hand gun.[46] "Ribaldis", which shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot, were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy, between 1345 and 1346.[47] The Florentine Giovanni Villani recounts their destructiveness, indicating that by the end of the battle, "the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls."[47] Similar cannon were also used at the Siege of Calais, in the same year, although it was not until the 1380s that the "ribaudekin" clearly became mounted on wheels.[47]
A small bronze cannon unearthed in Loshult, Scania in southern Sweden is considered to be one of the earliest surviving European guns.[48] It dates from the early-mid 14th century,[49] and is currently in the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm. They were used in Russia around 1380, though they were used only in sieges, often by the defenders.[50] Large cannon known as bombards ranged from three to five feet in length and were used by Dubrovnik and Kotor in defence in the later 14th century. The first bombards were made of iron, but bronze was quickly recognized as being stronger and capable of propelling stones weighing as much as a hundred pounds (45 kg). Byzantine strategists did not have the money to invest in this technology.[51] Around the same period, the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat, starting with medium-sized cannon 3 feet (0.91 m) long and of 10 in calibre.[52] The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople, in 1396, forcing the Ottomans to withdraw.[52] They acquired their own cannon, and laid siege to the Byzantine capital again, in 1422, using "falcons", which were short but wide cannon. By 1453, the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian-made cannon for the 55-day bombardment of the walls of Constantinople, "hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby."[52] The largest of their cannon was the Great Turkish Bombard, which required an operating crew of 200 men[53] and 70 oxen, and 10,000 men to transport it.[52] Gunpowder made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete, and with the final fall of Constantinople—which was protected by what were once the strongest walls in Europe—on 29 May 1453, "it was the end of an era in more ways than one."[54]
By the 16th century, cannon were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters, but the general rule was that the longer the barrel, the longer the range. Some cannon made during this time had barrels exceeding 10 ft (3.0 m) in length, and could weigh up to 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg). Consequently, large amounts of gunpowder were needed, to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards.[55] By mid-century, European monarchs began to classify cannon to reduce the confusion. Henry II of France opted for six sizes of cannon,[56] but others settled for more; the Spanish used twelve sizes, and the English sixteen.[57][58] Better powder had been developed by this time as well. Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards, powder was replaced by a "corned" variety of coarse grains. This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains, allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly.[59]
The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger, more powerful cannon, as well their spread throughout the world. As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon, siege engines—such as siege towers and trebuchets—became less widely used. However, wooden "battery-towers" took on a similar role as siege towers in the gunpowder age—such as that used at siege of Kazan in 1552, which could hold ten large-calibre cannon, in addition to 50 lighter pieces.[61] Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the change in conventional fortifications. Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, "There is no wall, whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days."[62] Although castles were not immediately made obsolete by cannon, their use and importance on the battlefield rapidly declined.[63] Instead of majestic towers and merlons, the walls of new fortresses were thick, angled, and sloped, while towers became low and stout; increasing use was also made of earth and brick in breastworks and redoubts. These new defences became known as "star forts", after their characteristic shape which attempted to force any advance toward it directly into the firing line of the guns.[63] A few of these featured cannon batteries, such as the Tudors' Device Forts, in England.[63] Star forts soon replaced castles in Europe, and, eventually, those in the Americas, as well.[64]
By the end of the 15th century, several technological advancements made cannon more mobile. Wheeled gun carriages and trunnions became common, and the invention of the limber further facilitated transportation.[65] As a result, field artillery became more viable, and began to see more widespread use, often alongside the larger cannon intended for sieges.[65][66] Better gunpowder, cast-iron projectiles (replacing stone), and the standardization of calibres meant that even relatively light cannon could be deadly.[65] In The Art of War, Niccolò Machiavelli observed that "It is true that the arquebuses and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy artillery."[62] This was the case at Flodden, in 1513: the English field guns outfired the Scottish siege artillery, firing two or three times as many rounds.[67] Despite the increased maneuverability, however, cannon were still the slowest component of the army: a heavy English cannon required 23 horses to transport, while a culverin needed nine. Even with this many animals pulling, they still moved at a walking pace. Due to their relatively slow speed, and lack of organization, and undeveloped tactics, the combination of pike and shot still dominated the battlefields of Europe.[68]
Innovations continued, notably the German invention of the mortar, a thick-walled, short-barrelled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle. Mortars were useful for sieges, as they could hit targets behind walls or other defences.[69] This cannon found more use with the Dutch, who learned to shoot bombs filled with powder from them. Setting the bomb fuse was a problem. "Single firing" was first used to ignite the fuse, where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the cannon's propellant. This often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb, causing it to blow up as it left the mortar. Because of this, "double firing" was tried where the gunner lit the fuse and then the touch hole. This, however, required considerable skill and timing, and was especially dangerous if the gun misfired, leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel. Not until 1650 was it accidentally discovered that double-lighting was superfluous as the heat of firing would light the fuse.[70]
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden emphasized the use of light cannon and mobility in his army, and created new formations and tactics that revolutionized artillery. He discontinued using all 12 pounder—or heavier—cannon as field artillery, preferring, instead, to use cannon that could be manned by only a few men. One obsolete type of gun, the "leatheren" was replaced by 4 pounder and 9 pounder demi-culverins. These could be operated by three men, and pulled by only two horses. Adolphus's army was also the first to use a cartridge that contained both powder and shot which sped up reloading, increasing the rate of fire.[71] Finally, against infantry he pioneered the use of canister shot - essentially a tin can filled with musket balls.[72] Until then there was no more than one cannon for every thousand infantrymen on the battlefield but Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannon sixfold. Each regiment was assigned two pieces, though he often arranged then into batteries instead of distributing them piecemeal. He used these batteries to break his opponent's infantry line, while his cavalry would outflank their heavy guns.[73]
At the Battle of Breitenfeld, in 1631, Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes made to his army, by defeating Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly. Although severely outnumbered, the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many volleys of artillery, and their infantry's linear formations helped ensure they didn't lose any ground. Battered by cannon fire, and low on morale, Tilly's men broke ranks and fled.[74]
In England cannon were being used to besiege various fortified buildings during the English Civil War. Nathaniel Nye is recorded as testing a Birmingham cannon in 1643 and experimenting with a saker in 1645.[75] From 1645 he was the master gunner to the Parliamentarian garrison at Evesham and in 1646 he successfully directed the artillery at the Siege of Worcester, detailing his experiences and in his 1647 book The Art of Gunnery.[75] Believing that war was as much a science as an art,[76] his explanations focused on triangulation, arithmetic, theoretical mathematics,[77] and cartography[75] as well as practical considerations such as the ideal specification for gunpowder or slow matches.[78] His book acknowledged mathematicians such as Robert Recorde and Marcus Jordanus as well as earlier military writers on artillery such as Niccolò Tartaglia and Thomas Malthus.[75]
Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target. Gunners controlled the range of their cannon by measuring the angle of elevation, using a "gunner's quadrant." Cannon did not have sights, therefore, even with measuring tools, aiming was still largely guesswork.[79]
In the latter half of the 17th century, the French engineer Vauban introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder fortresses, in a time when many field commanders "were notorious dunces in siegecraft."[80] Careful sapping forward, supported by enfilading ricochet fire, was a key feature of this system, and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a siege would take.[80] He was also a prolific builder of star forts, and did much to popularize the idea of "depth in defence" in the face of cannon.[81] These principles were followed into the mid-19th century, when changes in armaments necessitated greater depth defence than Vauban had provided for. It was only in the years prior to World War I that new works began to break radically away from his designs.[82]
The lower tier of 17th-century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi-cannon, guns that fired a 32 pounds (15 kg) solid shot, and could weigh up to 3,400 pounds (1,500 kg).[83] Demi-cannon were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with such force that they could penetrate more than a metre of solid oak, from a distance of 90 m (300 ft), and could dismast even the largest ships at close range.[84] Full cannon fired a 42 lb (19 kg) shot, but were discontinued by the 18th century, as they were too unwieldy. By the end of the 18th century, principles long adopted in Europe specified the characteristics of the Royal Navy's cannon, as well as the acceptable defects, and their severity. The United States Navy tested guns by measuring them, firing them two or three times—termed "proof by powder"—and using pressurized water to detect leaks.[85]
The carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779; the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel, as they were believed to be more deadly than the ball by itself.[86] The carronade was much shorter, and weighed between a third to a quarter of the equivalent long gun; for example, a 32 pounder carronade weighed less than a ton, compared with a 32 pounder long gun, which weighed over 3 tons. The guns were, therefore, easier to handle, and also required less than half as much gunpowder, allowing fewer men to crew them.[87] Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun calibres,[88] but were not counted in a ship of the line's rated number of guns. As a result, the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can be misleading, as they often carried more cannon than were listed.
In the 1810s and 1820s, greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long-range gunfire, and less on the weight of a broadside. The carronade, although initially very successful and widely adopted, disappeared from the Royal Navy in the 1850s after the development of wrought-iron-jacketed steel cannon by William George Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth. Nevertheless, carronades were used in the American Civil War.[86][89]
Western cannon during the 19th century became larger, more destructive, more accurate, and could fire at longer range. One example is the American 3 in (76 mm) wrought-iron, muzzle-loading rifle, or Griffen gun (usually called the 3-inch Ordnance Rifle), used during the American Civil War, which had an effective range of over 1.1 mi (1.8 km). Another is the smoothbore 12 pounder Napoleon, which originated in France in 1853 and was widely used by both sides in the American Civil War. This cannon was renowned for its sturdiness, reliability, firepower, flexibility, relatively light weight, and range of 1,700 m (5,600 ft).[90]
Cannon were crucial in Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power, and continued to play an important role in his army in later years.[91] During the French Revolution, the unpopularity of the Directory led to riots and rebellions. When over 25,000 royalists led by General Danican assaulted Paris, Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras was appointed to defend the capital; outnumbered five to one and disorganized, the Republicans were desperate.[92] When Napoleon arrived, he reorganized the defences but realized that without cannon the city could not be held. He ordered Joachim Murat to bring the guns from the Sablons artillery park; the Major and his cavalry fought their way to the recently captured cannon, and brought them back to Napoleon. When Danican's poorly trained men attacked, on 13 Vendémiaire, 1795 — 5 October 1795, in the calendar used in France at the time — Napoleon ordered his cannon to fire grapeshot into the mob,[93] an act that became known as the "whiff of grapeshot".[94] The slaughter effectively ended the threat to the new government, while, at the same time, made Bonaparte a famous—and popular—public figure.[93][95] Among the first generals to recognize that artillery was not being used to its full potential, Napoleon often massed his cannon into batteries and introduced several changes into the French artillery, improving it significantly and making it among the finest in Europe.[96][97] Such tactics were successfully used by the French, for example, at the Battle of Friedland, when sixty-six guns fired a total of 3,000 roundshot and 500 rounds of grapeshot,[96][98] inflicting severe casualties to the Russian forces, whose losses numbered over 20,000 killed and wounded, in total.[99] At the Battle of Waterloo—Napoleon's final battle—the French army had many more artillery pieces than either the British or Prussians. As the battlefield was muddy, recoil caused cannons to bury themselves into the ground after firing, resulting in slow rates of fire, as more effort was required to move them back into an adequate firing position;[100] also, roundshot did not ricochet with as much force from the wet earth.[101] Despite the drawbacks, sustained artillery fire proved deadly during the engagement, especially during the French cavalry attack.[102] The British infantry, having formed infantry squares, took heavy losses from the French guns, while their own cannon fired at the cuirassiers and lancers, when they fell back to regroup. Eventually, the French ceased their assault, after taking heavy losses from the British cannon and musket fire.[103]
The practice of rifling—casting spiralling lines inside the cannon's barrel—was applied to artillery more frequently by 1855, as it gave cannon projectiles gyroscopic stability, which improved their accuracy. One of the earliest rifled cannon was the breech-loading Armstrong Gun—also invented by William George Armstrong—which boasted significantly improved range, accuracy, and power than earlier weapons. The projectile fired from the Armstrong gun could reportedly pierce through a ship's side, and explode inside the enemy vessel, causing increased damage, and casualties.[104] The British military adopted the Armstrong gun, and was impressed; the Duke of Cambridge even declared that it "could do everything but speak."[105] Despite being significantly more advanced than its predecessors, the Armstrong gun was rejected soon after its integration, in favour of the muzzle-loading pieces that had been in use before.[106] While both types of gun were effective against wooden ships, neither had the capability to pierce the armour of ironclads; due to reports of slight problems with the breeches of the Armstrong gun, and their higher cost, the older muzzle-loaders were selected to remain in service instead.[107] Realizing that iron was more difficult to pierce with breech-loaded cannon, Armstrong designed rifled muzzle-loading guns,[108] which proved successful; The Times reported: "even the fondest believers in the invulnerability of our present ironclads were obliged to confess that against such artillery, at such ranges, their plates and sides were almost as penetrable as wooden ships."[109]
The superior cannon of the Western world brought them tremendous advantages in warfare. For example, in the Opium War in China, during the 19th century, British battleships bombarded the coastal areas and fortifications from afar, safe from the reach of the Chinese cannon. Similarly, the shortest war in recorded history, the Anglo-Zanzibar War of 1896, was brought to a swift conclusion by shelling from British cruisers.[110] The cynical attitude toward recruited infantry in the face of ever more powerful field artillery is the source of the term cannon fodder, first used by François-René de Chateaubriand, in 1814;[111] however, the concept of regarding soldiers as nothing more than "food for powder" was mentioned by William Shakespeare as early as 1598, in Henry IV, Part 1.[112]
Cannon in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub-categories and given separate names. Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are howitzers, mortars, guns, and autocannon, although a few superguns—extremely large, custom-designed cannon—have also been constructed. Nuclear artillery was experimented with, but was abandoned as impractical.[113] Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles, depending on its type. According to NATO, the general role of artillery is to provide fire support, which is defined as "the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutralize, or suppress the enemy."[114]
When referring to cannon, the term gun is often used incorrectly. In military usage, a gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and a flat trajectory, useful for hitting the sides of targets such as walls,[7] as opposed to howitzers or mortars, which have lower muzzle velocities, and fire indirectly, lobbing shells up and over obstacles to hit the target from above.[115][116]
By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon proved highly effective during World War I, directly or indirectly causing over 75% of casualties.[117] The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried more explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French.[118] World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This 200 mm (8 in) calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than 122 km (76 mi) away.[119]
The Second World War sparked new developments in cannon technology. Among them were sabot rounds, hollow-charge projectiles, and proximity fuses, all of which increased the effectiveness of cannon against specific target.[120] The proximity fuse emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944.[121] Used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles, proximity fuses were fielded in both the European and Pacific Theatres of Operations; they were particularly useful against V-1 flying bombs and kamikaze planes. Although widely used in naval warfare, and in anti-air guns, both the British and Americans feared unexploded proximity fuses would be reverse engineered leading to them limiting its use in continental battles. During the Battle of the Bulge, however, the fuses became known as the American artillery's "Christmas present" for the German army because of their effectiveness against German personnel in the open, when they frequently dispersed attacks.[122] Anti-tank guns were also tremendously improved during the war: in 1939, the British used primarily 2 pounder and 6 pounder guns. By the end of the war, 17 pounders had proven much more effective against German tanks, and 32 pounders had entered development.[123][124] Meanwhile, German tanks were continuously upgraded with better main guns, in addition to other improvements. For example, the Panzer III was originally designed with a 37 mm gun, but was mass-produced with a 50 mm cannon.[125] To counter the threat of the Russian T-34s, another, more powerful 50 mm gun was introduced,[125] only to give way to a larger 75 mm cannon, which was in a fixed mount as the StuG III, the most-produced German World War II armoured fighting vehicle of any type.[126] Despite the improved guns, production of the Panzer III was ended in 1943, as the tank still could not match the T-34, and was replaced by the Panzer IV and Panther tanks.[127] In 1944, the 8.8 cm KwK 43 and many variations, entered service with the Wehrmacht, and was used as both a tank main gun, and as the PaK 43 anti-tank gun.[128][129] One of the most powerful guns to see service in World War II, it was capable of destroying any Allied tank at very long ranges.[130][131]
Despite being designed to fire at trajectories with a steep angle of descent, howitzers can be fired directly, as was done by the 11th Marine Regiment at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, during the Korean War. Two field batteries fired directly upon a battalion of Chinese infantry; the Marines were forced to brace themselves against their howitzers, as they had no time to dig them in. The Chinese infantry took heavy casualties, and were forced to retreat.[132]
The tendency to create larger calibre cannon during the World Wars has reversed since. The United States Army, for example, sought a lighter, more versatile howitzer, to replace their ageing pieces. As it could be towed, the M198 was selected to be the successor to the World War II–era cannon used at the time, and entered service in 1979.[133] Still in use today, the M198 is, in turn, being slowly replaced by the M777 Ultralightweight howitzer, which weighs nearly half as much and can be more easily moved. Although land-based artillery such as the M198 are powerful, long-ranged, and accurate, naval guns have not been neglected, despite being much smaller than in the past, and, in some cases, having been replaced by cruise missiles.[134] However, the Zumwalt-class destroyer's planned armament includes the Advanced Gun System (AGS), a pair of 155 mm guns, which fire the Long Range Land-Attack Projectile. The warhead, which weighs 24 pounds (11 kg), has a circular error of probability of 50 m (160 ft), and will be mounted on a rocket, to increase the effective range to 100 nmi (190 km), further than that of the Paris Gun. The AGS's barrels will be water cooled, and will fire 10 rounds per minute, per gun. The combined firepower from both turrets will give a Zumwalt-class destroyer the firepower equivalent to 18 conventional M-198 howitzers.[135][136] The reason for the re-integration of cannon as a main armament in United States Navy ships is because satellite-guided munitions fired from a gun are less expensive than a cruise missile but have a similar guidance capability.[134]
Autocannons have an automatic firing mode, similar to that of a machine gun. They have mechanisms to automatically load their ammunition, and therefore have a higher rate of fire than artillery, often approaching, or, in the case of rotary autocannons, even surpassing the firing rate of a machine gun.[137] While there is no minimum bore for autocannons, they are generally larger than machine guns, typically 20 mm or greater since World War II and are usually capable of using explosive ammunition even if it isn't always used. Machine guns in contrast are usually too small to use explosive ammunition.[138]
Most nations use rapid-fire cannon on light vehicles, replacing a more powerful, but heavier, tank gun. A typical autocannon is the 25 mm "Bushmaster" chain gun, mounted on the LAV-25 and M2 Bradley armored vehicles.[11] Autocannons may be capable of a very high rate of fire, but ammunition is heavy and bulky, limiting the amount carried. For this reason, both the 25 mm Bushmaster and the 30 mm RARDEN are deliberately designed with relatively low rates of fire. The typical rate of fire for a modern autocannon ranges from 90 to 1,800 rounds per minute. Systems with multiple barrels, such as a rotary autocannon, can have rates of fire of more than several thousand rounds per minute. The fastest of these is the GSh-6-23, which has a rate of fire of over 10,000 rounds per minute.[137]
Autocannons are often found in aircraft, where they replaced machine guns and as shipboard anti-aircraft weapons, as they provide greater destructive power than machine guns.[10]
The first documented installation of a cannon on an aircraft was on the Voisin Canon in 1911, displayed at the Paris Exposition that year. By World War I, all of the major powers were experimenting with aircraft mounted cannon; however their low rate of fire and great size and weight precluded any of them from being anything other than experimental. The most successful (or least unsuccessful) was the SPAD 12 Ca.1 with a single 37mm Puteaux mounted to fire between the cylinder banks and through the propeller boss of the aircraft's Hispano-Suiza 8C. The pilot (by necessity an ace) had to manually reload each round.[139]
The first autocannon were developed during World War I as anti-aircraft guns, and one of these - the Coventry Ordnance Works "COW 37 mm gun" was installed in an aircraft but the war ended before it could be given a field trial and never became standard equipment in a production aircraft. Later trials had it fixed at a steep angle upwards in both the Vickers Type 161 and the Westland C.O.W. Gun Fighter, an idea that would return later.
During this period autocannons became available and several fighters of the German Luftwaffe and the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service were fitted with 20mm cannon. They continued to be installed as an adjunct to machine guns rather than as a replacement, as the rate of fire was still too low and the complete installation too heavy. There was a some debate in the RAF as to whether the greater number of possible rounds being fired from a machine gun, or a smaller number of explosive rounds from a cannon was preferable. Improvements during the war in regards to rate of fire allowed the cannon to displace the machine gun almost entirely.[10] The cannon was more effective against armour so they were increasingly used during the course of World War II, and newer fighters such as the Hawker Tempest usually carried two or four versus the six .50 Browning machine guns for US aircraft or eight to twelve M1919 Browning machine guns on British aircraft. The Hispano-Suiza HS.404, Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, MG FF, and their numerous variants became among the most widely used autocannon in the war. cannon, as with machine guns, were generally fixed to fire forwards (mounted in the wings, in the nose or fuselage, or in a pannier under either); or were mounted in gun turrets on heavier aircraft. Both the Germans and Japanese mounted cannon to fire upwards and forwards for use against heavy bombers, with the Germans calling guns so-installed Schräge Musik . Schräge Musik derives from the German colloquialism for Jazz Music (the German word schräg literally means slanted or oblique)
Preceding the Vietnam War the high speeds aircraft were attaining led to a move to remove the cannon due to the mistaken belief that they would be useless in a dogfight, but combat experience during the Vietnam War showed conclusively that despite advances in missiles, there was still a need for them. Nearly all modern fighter aircraft are armed with an autocannon and they are also commonly found on ground-attack aircraft. One of the most powerful examples is the 30mm GAU-8/A Avenger Gatling-type rotary cannon, mounted exclusively on the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II.[10][140] The Lockheed AC-130 gunship (a converted transport) can carry a 105mm howitzer as well as a variety of autocannons ranging up to 40mm.[141] Both are used in the close air support role.
In the 1770s, cannon operation worked as follows: each cannon would be manned by two gunners, six soldiers, and four officers of artillery. The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder, and the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and be ready to fire the cannon at the officer's command. On each side of the cannon, three soldiers stood, to ram and sponge the cannon, and hold the ladle. The second soldier on the left tasked with providing 50 bullets.[142]
Before loading, the cannon would be cleaned with a wet sponge to extinguish any smouldering material from the last shot. Fresh powder could be set off prematurely by lingering ignition sources. The powder was added, followed by wadding of paper or hay, and the ball was placed in and rammed down. After ramming, the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet. At 45 degrees, the ball had the utmost range: about ten times the gun's level range. Any angle above a horizontal line was called random-shot. Wet sponges were used to cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds.[142]
During the Napoleonic Wars, a British gun team consisted of five gunners to aim it, clean the bore with a damp sponge to quench any remaining embers before a fresh charge was introduced, and another to load the gun with a bag of powder and then the projectile. The fourth gunner pressed his thumb on the vent hole, to prevent a draught that might fan a flame. The charge loaded, the fourth would prick the bagged charge through the vent hole, and fill the vent with powder. On command, the fifth gunner would fire the piece with a slowmatch.[143]
When a cannon had to be abandoned such as in a retreat or surrender, the touch hole of the cannon would be plugged flush with an iron spike, disabling the cannon (at least until metal boring tools could be used to remove the plug). This was called "spiking the cannon".
A gun was said to be honeycombed when the surface of the bore had cavities, or holes in it,[144] caused either by corrosion or casting defects.
Historically, logs or poles have been used as decoys to mislead the enemy as to the strength of an emplacement. The "Quaker gun trick" was used by Colonel William Washington's Continentals, during the American Revolutionary War; in 1780, approximately 100 Loyalists surrendered to them, rather than face bombardment.[145] During the American Civil War, Quaker guns were also used by the Confederates, to compensate for their shortage of artillery. The decoy cannon were painted black at the "muzzle", and positioned behind fortifications to delay Union attacks on those positions. On occasion, real gun carriages were used to complete the deception.[146]
Cannon sounds have sometimes been used in classical pieces with a military theme. Giuseppe Sarti is believed to be the first composer to orchestrate real cannon in a musical work. His Te Deum celebrates the Russian victory at Ochakov (1789) with the firing of a real cannon and the use of fireworks, to heighten the martial effect of the music.
One of the best known examples of such a piece is another Russian work, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture.[147] The overture is properly performed using an artillery section together with the orchestra, resulting in noise levels requiring musicians to wear ear protection.[148] The cannon fire simulates Russian artillery bombardments of the Battle of Borodino, a critical battle in Napoleon's invasion of Russia, whose defeat the piece celebrates.[148] When the overture was first performed, the cannon were fired by an electric current triggered by the conductor.[149] However, the overture was not recorded with real cannon fire until Mercury Records and conductor Antal Doráti's 1958 recording of the Minnesota Orchestra.[150] Cannon fire is also frequently used annually in presentations of the 1812 on the American Independence Day, a tradition started by Arthur Fiedler of the Boston Pops in 1974.[148][151]
The hard rock band AC/DC also used cannon in their song "For Those About to Rock (We Salute You)",[152] and in live shows replica Napoleonic cannon and pyrotechnics were used to perform the piece.[152]
Cannon recovered from the sea are often extensively damaged from exposure to salt water; because of this, electrolytic reduction treatment is required to forestall the process of corrosion.[153] The cannon is then washed in deionized water to remove the electrolyte, and is treated in tannic acid, which prevents further rust and gives the metal a bluish-black colour.[154][155] After this process, cannon on display may be protected from oxygen and moisture by a wax sealant. A coat of polyurethane may also be painted over the wax sealant, to prevent the wax-coated cannon from attracting dust in outdoor displays.[155] Recently archaeologists say six cannon recovered from a river in Panama that could have belonged to legendary pirate Henry Morgan are being studied and could eventually be displayed after going through a restoration process.[156]
Little is known about their armament, but Chinese ships did carry bronze cannon at this time, as evidenced by the wreck of a small two-masted patrol vessel discovered in Shandong together with its anchor (inscribed 1372) and cannons (inscribed 1377).
Considering that Chinese ships armed with gunpowder weapons, including cannon, visited the region regularly from the 1200s to the 1400s
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