出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/09/01 12:01:41」(JST)
| （国旗） | （国章） |
| 公用語 | スウェーデン語（事実上） | ||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 首都 | ストックホルム | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 最大の都市 | ストックホルム | ||||||||||||||||||||
|
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| カルマル同盟より独立 | 1523年6月6日 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 通貨 | スウェーデン・クローナ（SEK） | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 時間帯 | UTC +1（DST：+2） | ||||||||||||||||||||
| ISO 3166-1 | SE / SWE | ||||||||||||||||||||
| ccTLD | .se | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 国際電話番号 | 46 | ||||||||||||||||||||
スウェーデン王国（スウェーデンおうこく、スウェーデン語: Konungariket Sverige[ヘルプ/ファイル]）、通称スウェーデンは、北ヨーロッパのスカンディナヴィア半島に位置する立憲君主制国家。西にノルウェー、北東にフィンランド、南西にカテガット海峡を挟んでデンマーク、東から南にはバルト海が存在する。首都はストックホルム。スウェーデン語ではSverige（スヴェーリエ）といい、スヴェーア族の国を意味する。
現王家はベルナドッテ家。スウェーデン・アカデミーによるノーベル賞は世界的権威がある。歴代国王は王位につく際に、自分の統治をモットーとして表明する習慣になっている。現国王カール16世グスタフのモットーは「För Sverige i tiden（スウェーデンのために、時代と共に）」である（右の表中では国の標語としている）。
正式名称はKonungariket Sverige（コゥーネゥンガリケト・スヴェリエ）。通称Sverige。
英語の公式名称はKingdom of Sweden、通称Sweden。形容詞はSwedish（スウィディッシュ）。スウェーデン人を表す場合は名詞のSwede（スウィード）が使用される場合もある。
日本語の表記はスウェーデン王国。通称スウェーデン。他にスエーデン、スェーデンという表記もされる。漢字による当て字は「瑞典」。スイスの当て字は「瑞西」で、いずれも「瑞」と略されるが、これらの漢字名は一般に余り用いられないため混乱を生むことは少ない。なお、特にスイスと区別する場合はスウェーデンを「典」[2]、スイスを「瑞」と略する[3]。
詳細は「スウェーデンの歴史」を参照
古代はスウェーデン・ヴァイキング（ヴァリャーグ）として主に東方で活動した。ヨーロッパ文化やキリスト教も受容し、13世紀頃にはフォルクンガ朝が現在のフィンランドを含む地域を統一。1397年にデンマーク・ノルウェーとカルマル同盟を結んで同君連合を形成する。
1523年、カルマル同盟から離脱し王政となる（ヴァーサ朝）。16世紀の宗教改革ではプロテスタントを受容し、バルト海地域へ進出する。17世紀にグスタフ2世アドルフ（獅子王）の時代にバルト帝国を建国する。新大陸にも植民地を築き、王国は最盛期を迎える。1654年にプファルツ朝に王朝替えするもバルト帝国を維持。しかし18世紀初頭にカール12世はバルト海の覇権を争い、ピョートル1世の時代のロシア帝国と大北方戦争で戦って敗れ、沿岸の領土を失い一時没落する。18世紀後半にホルシュタイン＝ゴットルプ朝のグスタフ3世が中興させるも、ナポレオン戦争の経過によって、フィンランドを失った。
1809年の革命で立憲君主制が成立、1814年にキール条約でノルウェーを併合。1818年よりフランス人ベルナドット元帥（カール14世ヨハン）が国王に即位しベルナドッテ朝が始まる。ウィーン体制ではノルウェーと同君連合（1814年 - 1905年）を結ぶが、1905年に分離。19世紀半ばにスウェーデン王の推奨した汎スカンディナヴィア主義が頓挫し、北欧は小国化に向かう。
1932年に社会民主労働党政権となり、以降のスウェーデンは福祉国家路線が支配的イデオロギーとなった。武装中立政策を取り、第一次世界大戦、第二次世界大戦の両大戦にも参加していないが、両大戦とも義勇軍を組織していた事は事実である。第二次大戦の中立違反の政策は、戦中も戦後も、国内外から批判を浴びている。ただし、当時は連合国も枢軸国も国際法を守っておらず、一方的に批判されることではなく、デンマーク、ノルウェー、フィンランド人の反ナチス、レジスタンスを匿い、ユダヤ人を保護したことは、人道にもっとも重きを置いた決定と言える。また、大日本帝国政府の終戦の事前交渉も行なっている。
東西冷戦中は、ノルディックバランスを構築し、アメリカ寄りの政策と中立主義政策を行き来したが、冷戦終結後は、中立主義を放棄し（軍事的非同盟と定義しなおし）、1995年にオーストリア、フィンランドとともに欧州連合 (EU) に加盟した。北欧諸国の中ではデンマークが1973年にEUに加盟している。
「北欧の政治#スウェーデンの政治」および「政府 (スウェーデン)」も参照
政体は立憲君主制。国家元首である国王は、国家の象徴であり、儀礼的職務のみを行う。
「スウェーデン君主一覧」も参照
スウェーデンの立法機関たる議会はリクスダーゲン (Riksdagen) と呼ばれる。1971年に両院制から一院制に変わった。2006年総選挙時の定数は349議席で、議員の任期は4年。議員の選出方法は比例代表制による。
「リクスダーゲン」も参照
行政府の長は首相である。議会の総選挙後に、国会議長が副議長及び各党の代表者を招集し、新首相を推挙し、議会の過半数の反対でないことで承認される（反対票を投じないまでも、賛成できない議員は、投票を棄権する）。その後、国王の臨席する任命式において国会議長が新首相を任命し、新首相は同時に各大臣を任命し組閣を行う。
「スウェーデンの首相」も参照
このように、1974年改正後のスウェーデン憲法では、通常の立憲君主国の君主が有する首相任命権を始めとする全ての官吏任命権を形式的にも失っている。国王の権能は情報閣議による大臣からの情報収集（いわゆる内奏）や外国使節の接受などもっぱら儀礼的な機能に限られている。そのためもはや立憲君主制ではなく、象徴君主制という新たな統治形態であるとする学説もある。
詳細は「スウェーデンの政党」を参照
2010年9月の選挙で議会に議席を獲得した政党は以下の8党。
詳細は「スウェーデンの福祉」および「スウェーデンの医療」を参照
長年にわたる社会民主労働党政権の下で構築された社会保障制度が整い、税金制度や高齢者福祉など、社会政策が各国の注目を浴びている。
1971年から1984年において実質経済成長率、国民一人当たり GDP成長率が社会民主労働党政権の下においてのみ上昇、失業率、消費者物価上昇率は減少している。 1982年から1986年の公的部門の貯蓄の対GDP比は、米国、英国、フランス、日本、西ドイツに比較して高い[4]。
スウェーデンは、「社会科学の実験国家」だとも言われている。時代状況の変化に対応し、実に簡単に制度（法律）が変更される。そのため、スウェーデンの研究は絶えずこの変化を追いかけ、変更された意図を正確に捉え、その目的と意義を探る必要がある。低所得者層、高齢者、障害者、失業者等、社会的弱者もあるレベル以上の生活をすることが保障される。
詳細は「スウェーデン軍」を参照
スウェーデン軍は陸軍、海軍、空軍の三軍と郷土防衛隊からなり、国防省の管轄下にある。東西冷戦期にはノルディックバランスに則った中立政策を保ち、兵器体系も専守防衛のための独特のものとなった。独自開発兵器も多い。現在もNATOには加盟せず、ロシアとも緊密な軍事協力関係を維持している。
徴兵制度（19歳～47歳の男子が対象。女子は対象外である）が実施されていた時代があり、兵役拒否を希望する男子に対して介護や医療などの代替役務を課すことにより、「良心的兵役拒否」が認められていた。2010年7月1日に徴兵制度は正式に廃止された。
詳細は「スウェーデンの県」および「ランスティング (スウェーデン)」を参照
日本の県に相当するスウェーデンの地方自治体には2種類あり、その一つは国会と政府の出先機関であるレーン（スウェーデン語: län）で、もう一方は県民の代表たるランスティング（スウェーデン語: landsting）である。
レーンの総数は21で、ランスティングのそれは20であり、両者の境界線はほぼ一致する。ゴットランドは島という性格上、レーンの境、市の境、ランスティングの境が偶然一致してしまった特異な例である。レーンは、国会の決定に従い、政府の指示のもとで地域的に必要とされる行政を行うのがその主な役割。その最高議決機関である執行委員会は中央政府によって指名される執行委員長（日本の都道府県知事に相当）と、ランスティングを通じて住民により選挙で選ばれた委員で構成される。これに対してランスティングの主な役割は、県民の精神的・身体的健康の増進と公衆衛生の維持、県内にある学校等教育関連機関の指導・監督及び支援、県内で行われる文化的活動の支援にある。ランスティングの最高議決機関は県民から選挙で選ばれた議員によって構成される県（ランスティング）議会（スウェーデン語: landstingsfullmäktige）である。ランスティングの役割は地域によって細かい部分には差があり、レーンとの役割分担の度合いもそれぞれの地方によって細部は異なる。県庁所在地はレジデンススタード（スウェーデン語: residensstad）と呼ばれ、県の行政機関が集中している。
各県は日本の市に相当する基礎自治体である複数のコミューン（スウェーデン語: kommun）[5] に分割される。2007年現在、コミューンの総数は全国で290である。最高議決機関は市（コミューン）議会（スウェーデン語: kommunfullmäktige）であり、その議員は当該コミューンの市民によって、4年毎に9月下旬に行われるリクスダーゲンや県議会（ランスティング）の総選挙と同時に選挙で選ばれる。スウェーデン国籍非取得者であっても、同一コミューン内に3年以上滞在していれば、滞在先のコミューンとそのコミューンが所属している県のランスティングについては選挙権がある。
市内の人口密集地はテートオート (tätort) と一般に呼ばれるが、市役所やコミューン議会が置かれている市の中心地は特にセントラルオート（スウェーデン語: centralort）と呼称される。嘗てはスウェーデンにも「町」や「村」といった行政区分もあったが、現在は存在しない。日本の政令指定都市に置かれている「区」と同様の組織は一部のコミューンに設けられる事もあるが、さほど一般的でない上に、規模もごく小さい。「区」に近い概念としてスタッツデール（スウェーデン語: stadsdel）という表現があり、市内にあるそれぞれ人口密集地内の各地域を指す「地区」といった意味合いで使われる。
スウェーデンには以前、「教会市（スウェーデン語: kyrkokommun）」や「教区（スウェーデン語: församling）」という教会が課税権を持つ行政区分があったが、町や村と同様に行政区分としては教会市も教区も現在は存在しない。但し、教区という区分は人口統計や歴史学の研究等、ごく限られた範囲では利用される事もある。
地方行政区分とは別に歴史的、言語的に繋がりのあるランドスカープ（スウェーデン語: landskap）と呼ばれる25の地方がある。詳細はスウェーデンの地方を参照
詳細は「スウェーデンの都市の一覧」を参照
| 順位 | 都市名 | 人口[6] | 面積 (km2) |
人口密度 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | ストックホルム | 782,855 | 188 | 4,164.12 |
| 2 | イェーテボリ | 490,961 | 451 | 1,088.61 |
| 3 | マルメ | 278,319 | 156 | 1,784.10 |
| 4 | ウプサラ | 185,494 | 2,185 | 84.89 |
| 5 | リンシェーピング | 138,805 | 1,436 | 96.66 |
| 6 | ヴェステロース | 133,274 | 962 | 138.54 |
| 7 | オレブロ | 129,482 | 1,380 | 93.83 |
| 8 | ノーショーピング | 125,463 | 1,503.61 | 82.95 |
| 9 | ヘルシングボリ | 124,301 | 347 | 358.22 |
| 10 | ヨンショーピング | 122,524 | 1,489 | 82.29 |
| 11 | ウメオ | 110 587 | 2,331 | 47.44 |
| 12 | ルンド | 103,693 | 430 | 241.15 |
| 13 | ボロース | 100,570 | 915 | 109.91 |
| 14 | スンツバル | 94,549 | 3,209 | 29.46 |
| 15 | イェヴレ | 92,456 | 1,615 | 57.25 |
スウェーデンの面積は日本よりやや広く、日本全土に北海道をもう一つ足した程度である。面積の割りに人口が少なく人口は日本の約1/12、人口密度は約1/19程度。世界の人口密度ランクでは235カ国中187位で低密度である。スカンディナヴィア半島の中央、東側に位置する。半島西部はスカンディナヴィア山脈が南北に連なっているが標高は2,000m程度しかないなだらかな山脈である。この山脈の最北部にあるケブネカイセ山の北峰で海抜2104メートルがスウェーデンの最高点である。 ボスニア湾やバルト海に沿って平野部はあるが、それほど広大ではない。南部のスコーネ県を除き厳しい冬である。また夏も全般的に冷涼としている。湖沼も多く、中南部に最大のヴェーネルン湖と2番目に大きなヴェッテルン湖が位置する。肥沃な地はスコーネ県しかなく、中部から北部は農業には適さず酪農が主である。
17世紀にヨーロッパで最初の紙幣が発行され、中央銀行であるリクスバンクが設置されたことで知られている。
スウェーデンの経済の最大の特徴は公務員が多いことである。公的部門の人数は実に33%を超え全体の3分の1にも達する（日本は9.5%）。労働参加率は高く特に女性の労働参加率が高い（スウェーデン76%、日本48%）。そしてその女性の社会進出の場になっているのが公務員の福祉部門である。つまりスウェーデンにとって福祉国家と男女平等はそれ自体が国家と経済を支える重要な柱となっているのである。
国土の8割が冷帯に属し、コムギの栽培が可能な地域は北緯60度以南に過ぎない。農地は国土の6.5%であるが、農業従事者は国民の1.5%に過ぎない。しかしながら、高い生産性によって、穀類の自給率は121%（2002年）に達している。果実類と野菜類、油脂類を除く各項目の自給率はいずれも80%を上回る。穀類の生産量ではコムギ（241万トン、以下、2004年）、オオムギ（169万トン）のほか、燕麦（93万トン、世界シェア10位）が際立つ。
国土の65.9%は森林（針葉樹林）に覆われている。このため、針葉樹に限定すれば世界第5位の生産量（610万立方m、世界シェア5%）を占める。
1972年、酸性雨の被害を世界に知らしめるため国連人間環境会議を招致し、ストックホルムで開催した。1980年代では、国内の85，000の湖沼のうち、18，000で魚がほとんど死滅、激減した。[7]。
通信機器メーカーのエリクソンが有名。
SAAB（サーブ）は一般には自動車メーカーとして知られるが、元来は航空機メーカーで、ビゲン、ドラケン、グリペンといった戦闘機やサーブ 340などのターボプロップ旅客機を開発した実績を持つ。2006年現在、民間機部門からは撤退し、自動車部門はオペルと統合予定のGM100%子会社である（詳細は該当項目参照のこと）。国内のもうひとつの自動車メーカー、ボルボ (VOLVO) の乗用車部門は中国の浙江吉利控股集団の傘下。
ボフォースは、第二次世界大戦以前から存在し世界的なシェアを持つ重火器の老舗メーカーである。対空砲、艦砲、対潜ロケット等の製造に長けている。Sタンクもしくはバルカンタンクの名前で知られている戦車、Strv.103はこの企業が主体となって開発された。
北部の都市キルナは鉄鉱石の産地として有名であり、これを背景とした鉄鋼業が盛んである。生産される鋼材はスウェーデン鋼と呼ばれ、国際的にも日本の安来鋼と並んで硬く上質の鋼材として評価が高い。
他にノーベル財団のノーベル賞で知られるアルフレッド・ノーベルが設立した火薬メーカーのノーベル社、ヨーロッパ第2位の家電メーカーエレクトロラックス社、プロ用カメラ・レンズ製造のハッセルブラッド社などが挙げられる。
詳細は「スウェーデンの交通」を参照
スウェーデンの道路は所有区分によって一般道 (allmän väg) とその他の道路 (övriga vägar) に分けられる。一般道は国が所有し、スウェーデン産業省の外局である道路庁 (Vägverket) が管理している。一般道はヨーロッパ道路 (Europavägar) 、国道 (Riksvägar) 、県道 (Länsvägar) 、その他の一般道 (Övriga allmänna vägar) に分類される。ヨーロッパ道路は例外的に国連欧州経済委員会 (UNECE) が事務的な管理を担当している（スウェーデン国内の部分についてはスウェーデン政府が所有し、整備を担当）。その他の道路は各市の所有であったり、道路の設置されている土地の所有者に帰属している場合もある。その他の道路には市道 (kommunal väg) か私道 (enkild väg) 分類される。一般道はスウェーデンの道路法 (Väglag, SFS 1971:948) によって定義、建設・整備の責任等が定められている。その他の道路は土地及び建物法 (Plan- och bygglag, SFS 1987:10) にその規則が定められている。
2007年8月1日からストックホルム中心部では、出入りする国内登録車両に対して、時間帯に応じた進入税 (trängselskatt) が課税されるようになった。この税金の目的は中心部の交通量を減らし、そのことによって公共交通機関たるバスの定時性を保持すると同時に、排ガスによる住民の健康を保護するなど中心部の環境保全にある。
詳細は「スウェーデンの鉄道」を参照
スウェーデンの鉄道は、政府が株式を100%所有するエスイー (SJ, Statens Järnväg) が全国の旅客輸送を担当している他、トーグコンパニーエット (Tågkompaniet) 、コネックス・スヴェリエ（Connex Sverige, Veolia Transport Sverigeに社名変更中）等の政府とは資本関係のない会社が一部地域の旅客鉄道輸送を担っている。線路はスウェーデン産業省の外局である鉄道線路庁 (Banverket, バーンベルケット) が所有・管理している。空港連絡鉄道としてはアーランダ空港とストックホルム中央駅をアーランダ・エクスプレス (Arlanda Express) が20分で結んでいる。貨物輸送はやはり政府が株式を100%所有するグリーン・カーゴ (GreenCargo) を中心に、ノルウェーの運送会社が筆頭株主のヘクター・レール (Hector Rail) 等によって運営されている。
地下鉄はストックホルムにのみあり、ストックホルムス・ロカールトラフィーク (SL, Stockholms Lokaltrafik) が運営している。ストックホルムス・ロカールトラフィークは郊外へのコミュータートレインも運行している。どちらもエスイー等、他の鉄道事業者とは乗り入れていない。
路面電車はストックホルム、ヨーテボリ、マルメ、ノーショーピングの各都市で運行されており、特にヨーテボリとノーショーピングの二都市では複数路線が市内の広い地域をカバーしている。
スウェーデンの各都市で運行されている公共交通機関としてのバスは地方自治体であるランスティングやレーン (län) がその出資母体となる株式会社として運営されている場合が多い。地方自治体とは資本関係のないバス会社も多数あるが、そのほとんどは観光目的の観光バスや都市間を結ぶ高速バスを運営している。
各都市で運行されているバスは市内の2拠点間を市中心部にあるバスターミナルを経由して（起・終点としてでなく）走っている。各都市には主要路線のバスが必ず経由するようなメインのバスターミナルが最低一つはあるが、そのようなターミナルが必ずしも日本のように駅前にあるわけではない。（もちろんバスターミナルが駅に隣接している場合もあり、離れていてもせいぜい500～600メートル程）ストックホルムやヨーテボリのような大都市ではそのようなバスターミナルが複数設けられている。
スカンジナビア三国（スウェーデン・ノルウェー・デンマーク）のフラッグ・キャリアたるスカンジナビア航空を筆頭に複数の航空会社が国内・国外への旅客便を運航している。スカンジナビア航空は他の航空会社に先駆け、アンカレッジ経由で西欧・極東間の便を就航させた事でも知られている（いわゆる「北回りヨーロッパ線」）。貨物便としてはスカンジナビア航空の他に、アメリカ系のUPS、ドイツ系のDHLが航空貨物便として乗り入れている。（UPSとDHLはスウェーデン国内の陸上輸送へも進出している。）
スカンジナビア航空以外でスウェーデン国内を拠点としている航空会社としては、マルメ・アヴィテーション (Malmö Avitation) 、スカイウェイズ (Skyways) 、ゴットランズフリーグ (Gotlandsflyg) 等の航空会社がある。多くは国内・国外への両方ともに運行しているものの、ほとんどはヨーロッパの各都市への便に限られている。
詳細は「スウェーデン人」、「:en:Swedes」、「スウェーデンの人口統計」、および「:en:Demographics of Sweden」を参照
| 民族構成（スウェーデン） | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| スウェーデン人 |
|
85% | ||
| フィンランド人 |
|
5% | ||
| その他 |
|
10% | ||
移民はスウェーデンの歴史における人口増加と文化変容の大きな源である。移民は、経済・社会そして政治的側面において、人種・経済的扶助・非移民の職・集落体系・社会的流動性への影響・犯罪・投票行動など、さまざまな議論を巻き起こしている。[8]
スウェーデンには移民の人種的背景に関するはっきりとした統計はない。これは、スウェーデン政府は人種に基づいた統計を一切行わないからである。しかしながら、移民の国籍については記録されている。1998年の調査では、外国にルーツを持つ者（外国生まれの者、また移民の子供）は1,746,921人であった。これはスウェーデンの人口のおよそ20%にあたる。そのうち1,216,659人（約70%）が、北欧またはその他ヨーロッパの国出身であり、530,262人（約30%）がそれ以外の国出身である。
2011年の統計によると、スウェーデンの総人口の約27%にあたる2,000,000人が、全面的、または部分的に外国にルーツを持つ。[9][10][11]そのうち外国生まれの者は1,427,296人である。430,253人が父母共に外国生まれの両親を持ち、666,723人は、片方が外国生まれ、もう片方がスウェーデン生まれの親を持つ。
2010年のEurostatの調査によると、スウェーデンには133万人の外国生まれの住民がいるとされ、これは全人口の14.3%にあたる。そのうち 859,000人（全人口の9.2%）は非EU加盟国生まれで、477,000 (全人口の5.1%)がEU加盟国生まれである。[12][13]
2009年には年間の移民の数は過去最高に達し、102,280人を記録した。[14]移民のほとんどは、スヴェアランドやイェータランドの都市圏に集中している。[13]1970年代初頭より、スウェーデンへの移民の殆どは中東や南米からの移民や、その家族の呼び寄せが占めている。[15] 2012年には、44,000人の難民を受け入れた。[16]また、シリア争乱の状況悪化に伴い、2013年9月には、シリアからスウェーデンへの亡命希望者全員を受け入れ、永住権を付与すると発表した。[17]
移民の主な出身国[18]
スウェーデンでは次世代先進国のモデルとして「高福祉高負担」の社会モデルが注目されていたが、その影には移民政策による歪みが拡大している。
移民排斥を唱える右翼政党のスウェーデン民主党が、反移民の空気の広がりを追い風にして2010年9月のスウェーデン総選挙で初めて国政に進出し20議席を獲得した。党首のジミー・オーケソンは「わが国の移民政策は失敗だった」と述べ、スウェーデン社会にとけ込まない移民に対する不満が右派政党躍進の背後にあったとみられている[19]。
2013年5月中旬、警察による男性射殺事件に端を発した抗議暴動は瞬く間に拡大し、ストックホルム市内とその周辺では車や学校への放火が相次いだ。警察署や学校が襲撃され、22日には一晩で90件の火事が発生した[20]。これに関連しラインフェルト首相は、移民の社会統合の失敗がストックホルムにある諸問題の一因であることを認めており、拡大し続ける移民問題のひずみにどう対処するのか、スウェーデンの今後の社会動向が注目されている[21]。
2009年7月からスウェーデン語 (svenska) が正式な公用語に制定された。そのほか、フィンランド語、メアンキエリ、ロマ語、サーミ語、イディッシュ語を話す者も少数いる。スウェーデン語は隣国のノルウェー語、デンマーク語と類縁関係（ゲルマン諸語）にあり、スウェーデン語話者とノルウェー語話者は相互に意思疎通ができる会話程度は可能であると言われる。
また、アメリカ英語については1940年後半から義務教育化されており、テレビ番組に米国製番組の字幕版が多いといった文化面の影響も含め、アメリカ英語での会話が可能である。[22]
福音ルーテル教会がスウェーデン国教会である。実際に、その人口の8割が福音ルーテル教会に所属している。
| この節は検証可能な参考文献や出典が全く示されていないか、不十分です。出典を追加して記事の信頼性向上にご協力ください。（2007年5月） |
詳細は「スウェーデン文学」を参照
スウェーデンの民族音楽は、フォルクムジーク(folkmusik)と称され、フォルクダンス(folkdans、民族舞踊、正確には民間伝承舞踊と訳されるのが好ましい)と深いつながりがある。フォルクダンスの形態で有名なのはポルスカ(polska)で、また、スウェーデン独自の楽器にニッケルハルパ(nyckelharpa)がある。 (スヴェンスカ・)フォルクダンスリンゲン は、スウェーデン最大の民間伝承(伝統)音楽及び舞踊に関する組織であり、関連する情報の提供源として挙げておく。
バロック音楽の時代では、イギリスのヘンデルやペープシュに学んだユーハン・ヘルミク・ルーマン（1694年-1758年）は、ヘンデルばりの合奏協奏曲や、J.S.バッハの無伴奏ヴァイオリンのためのソナタとパルティータに近い響きの 「ヴァイオリンのためのエッセイ」 を書いて、「スウェーデン音楽の父」 または 「スウェーデンのヘンデル」 と呼ばれた。古典派の時代にはドイツ生まれのヨーゼフ・マルティン・クラウス（1756年-1792年）が活躍し、短調の情熱的な曲を多く書いて 「スウェーデンのモーツァルト」 と呼ばれている。
ロマン派音楽の時代に入ると、フランス・アドルフ・ベルワルド（1796年-1868年）、ヴィルヘルム・ペッテション＝ベリエル（1867年-1942年）、ヴィルヘルム・ステーンハンマル（1871年-1927年）、ヒューゴ・アルヴェーン（1872年-1960年）などの作曲家が挙げられる。
デンマークのカール・ニールセン、ノルウェーのエドヴァルド・グリーグ、フィンランドのジャン・シベリウスなどと比べてクラシック音楽全体の知名度は劣るが、近年では北欧全体におけるそれぞれの自国の文化を保護・支援する制度が充実しているため、これらの作曲家のレパートリーも多く取り上げられるようになって来ている。
また合唱のレヴェルは世界最高水準を誇り、エリック・エリクソンが長く指揮者を務め、世界的な評価を誇るスウェーデン国立放送合唱団やエリック・エリクソン室内合唱団などがある。
昔日は世界第3位の音楽輸出大国と言われたこともあった。1960年代にはスプートニクスがエレキインスト界を席巻した。1970年代後半にABBAが世界中を席巻した。1980年代にはヨーロッパやロクセットなどのバンドが世界的レヴェルの人気を博した。1990年代中期に現れたエイス・オブ・ベイスは1994年に、ザ・サイン（The Sign）を全米シングルチャートの年間第1位にするという偉業を成し遂げている。スウェーデンのヨーロッパ、イングヴェイ・マルムスティーンなどを中心に1980年代頃から開拓されたヘヴィメタル系のロックは、北欧メタルと称される。1990年代以降は特にエクストリームメタルにおいて、アット・ザ・ゲイツ、イン・フレイムス、アーチ・エネミー、オーペスなどの数々のメロディックデスメタルバンドを生み、世界的な影響を与えている。
また、90年代はカーディガンズなど有名バンドを発信し、スウェーデンのポピュラー音楽は日本でも親しまれていた。日本国内のポピュラー音楽にスウェーデンのスタッフが関わることも多く、BONNIE PINK、原田知世、パフィー、ジャニーズ事務所所属のNEWSなどの楽曲に関わっている。
このように、一時はヨーロッパ外の国々にもその名を知らしめもしたが、1990年代も半ばを過ぎてアメリカのポピュラー音楽がアフリカン・アメリカンやラテンアメリカ系ないしその血を引く者達を主力とするダンス・ミュージックの独擅場となってゆくにつれてしだいに凋落の時を迎え、特に若者を聴衆とした音楽がヒップホップの要素を必須とするという世界的な傾向に伴って欧州でも往時のような知名度はなく、大市場であった日本における知名度もほぼ無くなっているが、ロック音楽に関しては、iPodの宣伝にも起用されたシーザーズや日本の音楽フェスティバル「サマーソニック」に何度も出演しているマンドゥ・ディアオ、が、日本でも大人気である。
詳細は「スウェーデンの美術」を参照
詳細は「スウェーデンの映画」を参照
スウェーデンでは毎年12月13日に聖ルチア祭が行われ、「一番大切な冬の行事」と言われている。イタリア・シチリア生まれの女性聖者である聖ルチアは貧しい人々に財産の全てを提供した純粋な人と言われている。貧民の生活に光を与えた彼女は、光の聖人として、また農耕の守護神として親しまれている。
16世紀にグレゴリオ暦が改訂されるまで、聖ルチア祭は北半球の冬至の日だった。冬至は一番日が短い日であるが故、日が長くなり始める日。日が長くなることを祝う古来からの民間信仰に、キリスト教の光の聖人がいつの間にか一体となって現在に至る。
長く暗く寒い三重苦の北欧の冬に一筋の光を投げ込むのが聖ルシア。この日の朝、女の子がいる家庭では白いドレスに蝋燭の冠を被った娘が父親にサフランパンとジンジャークッキーを持って行き、枕元でサンタ・ルチアの曲を歌う。父親はルシアのような光に包まれた娘に起こされる。
近年では職場や学校、教会などで聖ルシア祭が行われ、蝋燭の冠を被ったルシア姫を先頭に同じく白いドレスを着た女の子と星の使いに扮した男の子が行列を作ってサンタ・ルチアなどの歌を歌う。頭に載せたり手に持った蝋燭の淡い光が日の光を切望する北欧の人たちの気持ちを代弁しているようでもある。行列の後はサフランパンやジンジャークッキー、コーヒーやグレッグと呼ばれるホットワインが振る舞われる。
なお、イタリア語読みでルチアだったものが、スウェーデン語読みでルシアに変化している。
1990年代より、移民の増加により｢ブロンドの白人でなければルシアになれないのか｣という議論が巻き起こり、2000年に初めて非白人のルシアが誕生した。また近年では、移民の中にはキリスト教関連の行事に子供を参加させたくないという親がいることから、扮装などを取りやめた地域も存在する[23]。
詳細は「スウェーデンの世界遺産」を参照
スウェーデン国内には、ユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が11件、自然遺産が1件、複合遺産が1件存在する。
日曜日と重なっても振り替え休日にはならないが、祝日の前日が休みになっていたり、労働法により半日休暇を許可されていることが多い。キリスト昇天祭もメーデーと重なる5月1日になる場合があるが（2008年など）、この場合でも振り替え休日は発生しない。
| 日付 | 日本語表記 | 現地語表記 | 備考 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1月1日 | 元日 | Nyårsdagen | |
| 1月6日 | 公現祭（東方の三博士の来訪記念日） | Trettondedag jul | |
| 復活祭2日前 | 聖金曜日 | Långfredagen | 金曜日 |
| 復活祭翌日 | イースターマンデー | Annandag påsk | 月曜日 |
| 5月1日 | メーデー | Första maj | |
| 復活祭39日後 | 主の昇天（キリスト昇天祭） | Kristi himmelsfärds dag | 木曜日 |
| 6月6日 | 建国記念日 | Svenska flaggans dag | 2005年より法定休日 |
| 夏至祭前日 | 夏至祭前日 | Midsommarafton | 金曜日 |
| 6月20日から6月26日の間の土曜日 | 夏至祭 | Midsommardagen | 元々は6月24日 |
| 復活祭50日後 | 聖霊降臨後の月曜日 | Annandag pingst | 2004年まで法定休日 |
| 11月1日 | 万聖節 | Allhelgonadagen | |
| 12月24日 | クリスマスイヴ | Julafton | |
| 12月25日 | クリスマス | Juldagen | |
| 12月26日 | ボクシング・デー | Annandag jul | |
| 12月31日 | 大晦日 | Nyårsafton |
手厚い国庫負担によって国民の半分が何らかのスポーツに関与している。
特にサッカーが盛んで、FIFAワールドカップでは地元開催の1958年大会で準優勝、1950年ブラジル大会、1994年アメリカ大会では3位に入っている。ブロリン、ラーション、リュングベリ、イブラヒモビッチなど欧州のビッグクラブで活躍する選手も輩出している。
ウィンタースポーツも盛んに行われており、特にアイスホッケーはサッカーを凌ぐ人気スポーツである。NHLデトロイト・レッドウィングスに所属するヘンリク・ゼッターバーグは国民的スター。彼が原動力となり2006年はトリノオリンピックとアイスホッケー世界選手権の両方で金メダルを獲得した。
陸上競技では2004年アテネオリンピックで男子走高跳、男子三段跳、女子七種競技で金メダルを獲得するなど跳躍競技を中心に強い。また当初は陸上競技として捉えられていたものの、スウェーデン軍の斥候訓練が由来とされるオリエンテーリングも非常に盛んであり、他の北欧諸国と同じく強豪国として君臨している。他にボート競技、卓球、繋駕速歩競走など。テニスは国技とされ、日本で言う国技館のようなテニス会場がある。
婚姻の際、以前は父姓に統一するのを原則とし、例外的に別姓とする慣習法があったが、1982年に夫婦同姓・複合姓・夫婦別姓が選択できることが明文化された婚姻法が施行されている。また、2009年からは、同性同士の結婚（同性婚）も認められた。その他、サムボ法がある。
詳細は「スウェーデン人の一覧」を参照
| [ヘルプ] |
| ウィクショナリーにスウェーデンの項目があります。 |
| ウィキメディア・コモンズには、スウェーデンに関連するメディアおよびカテゴリがあります。 |
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| Kingdom of Sweden Konungariket Sverige
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| Motto: (royal) "För Sverige – i tiden" [c] "For Sweden – With the Times" |
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| Anthem: Du gamla, Du fria [d] Thou ancient, thou free
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Location of Sweden (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey) |
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| Capital and largest city |
Stockholm 59°21′N 18°4′E / 59.350°N 18.067°E / 59.350; 18.067 |
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| Official languages | Swedish[e] | |||||
| Ethnic groups | no official statistics[f] | |||||
| Demonym |
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| Government | Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
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| - | Monarch | Carl XVI Gustaf | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Fredrik Reinfeldt (M) | ||||
| - | Speaker of the Riksdag |
Per Westerberg (M) | ||||
| Legislature | Riksdag | |||||
| Establishment | ||||||
| - | Consolidation | Middle Ages | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 449,964 km2 (57th) 173,745 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 8.7 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2013 census | 9,658,301[1] | ||||
| - | Density | 21.5/km2 (195th) 55.6/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2013 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $393.774 billion[2] (34th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $40,870[2] (14th) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2013 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $552.042 billion[2] (21st) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $57,297[2] (7th) | ||||
| Gini (2012) | 24.9[3] low |
|||||
| HDI (2013) | 0.898[4] very high · 12th |
|||||
| Currency | Swedish krona (SEK) | |||||
| Time zone | CET (UTC+1) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | CEST (UTC+2) | ||||
| Date format | yyyy-mm-dd | |||||
| Drives on the | right[g] | |||||
| Calling code | 46 | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | SE | |||||
| Internet TLD | .se[h] | |||||
| a. | ^ Above the civil and state flag. Here the naval flag: |
|||||
| b. | ^ Above the greater coat of arms. Here the lesser coat of arms: |
|||||
| c. | ^ "För Sverige – I tiden" has been adopted by Carl XVI Gustaf as his personal motto. | |||||
| d. | ^ Du gamla, Du fria has never been officially adopted as national anthem, but is so by convention. | |||||
| e. | ^ Since 1 July 2009.[5][6] Five other languages are officially recognized as minority languages:[7] Finnish, Meänkieli, Romani, Sami, and Yiddish. The Swedish Sign Language also has a special status. | |||||
| f. | ^ On 31 December 2012[update], approximately 27% of the population had a full or partial foreign background.[8][9] | |||||
| g. | ^ Since 3 September 1967. | |||||
| h. | ^ The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. | |||||
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. Sweden borders Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund. At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.6 million.[1] Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas.[10] Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested.
Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Gotar and Svear tribes and contributing to the sea peoples known as Vikings. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th centuries. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, remaining a largely neutral nation.[11] The country played a role in humanitarian efforts during World Wars I and II, taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. With the ending of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union, although declined NATO membership.
Today, Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, with Carl XVI Gustaf as king, organised as a parliamentary democracy. The seat of government is the capital Stockholm, which is also the most populous city. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister, Fredrik Reinfeldt, and the cabinet. Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into twenty-one counties.
Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. It has the world's eighth-highest per capita income and ranks highly in numerous comparisons of national performance, including quality of life, health, education, protection of civil liberties, economic competitiveness, equality, prosperity and human development.[12][13][14][15][16] Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995, although remains outside the Eurozone. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod, which meant "people of the Swedes" (Old Norse Svíþjóð, Latin Suetidi). This word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas (Old Norse Sviar, Latin Suiones). The Swedish name Sverige (a compound of the words Svea and Rike, with lenition of the consonant [k], first recorded in the cognate Swēorice in Beowulf)—[17] literally means "Kingdom of the Swedes", excluding the Geats in Götaland.
Variations of the name Sweden are used in most languages, with the exception of Danish and Norwegian using Sverige, Icelandic Svíþjóð, and the more notable exception of some Finnic languages where Ruotsi (Finnish) and Rootsi (Estonian) are used, names commonly considered etymologically related to the English name for Russia, referring to the people, Rus', originally from the coastal areas of Roslagen, Uppland.
The etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning "one's own",[18] referring to one's own Germanic tribe.
Sweden's prehistory begins in the Allerød oscillation, a warm period around 12,000 BC, with Late Palaeolithic reindeer-hunting camps of the Bromme culture at the edge of the ice in what is now the country's southernmost province. This period was characterized by small bands of hunter-gatherer-fishers using flint technology.
Sweden enters proto-history with the Germania of Tacitus in AD 98. In Germania 44 and 45 he mentions the Swedes (Suiones) as a powerful tribe (distinguished not merely for their arms and men, but for their powerful fleets) with ships that had a prow at each end (longships). Which kings (kuningaz) ruled these Suiones is unknown, but Norse mythology presents a long line of legendary and semi-legendary kings going back to the last centuries BC. As for literacy in Sweden itself, the runic script was in use among the south Scandinavian elite by at least the 2nd century AD, but all that has come down to the present from the Roman Period is curt inscriptions on artefacts, mainly of male names, demonstrating that the people of south Scandinavia spoke Proto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to Swedish and other North Germanic languages.
In the 6th century Jordanes named two tribes he calls the Suehans and the Suetidi who lived in Scandza. These two names are both considered to refer to the same tribe. The Suehans, he says, have very fine horses just as the Thyringi tribe (alia vero gens ibi moratur Suehans, quae velud Thyringi equis utuntur eximiis). Snorri Sturluson wrote that the contemporary Swedish king Adils (Eadgils) had the finest horses of his day. The Suehans were the suppliers of black fox skins for the Roman market. Then Jordanes names the Suetidi which is considered to be the Latin form of Svitjod. He writes that the Suetidi are the tallest of men together with the Dani who were of the same stock. Later he mentions other Scandinavian tribes for being of the same height.
The Swedish Viking Age lasted roughly from the 8th century to the 11th century. It is believed that Swedish Vikings and Gutar mainly traveled east and south, going to Finland, the Baltic countries, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, the Black Sea and even as far as Baghdad. Their routes passed through the Dnieper south to Constantinople, on which they carried out numerous raids. The Byzantine Emperor Theophilos noticed their great skills in war, and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, known as the Varangian Guard. The Swedish Vikings, called Rus are believed to be the founding fathers of Kievan Rus'. The Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan described these Vikings as follows:
I have seen the Rus as they came on their merchant journeys and encamped by the Itil. I have never seen more perfect physical specimens, tall as date palms, blond and ruddy; they wear neither tunics nor caftans, but the men wear a garment which covers one side of the body and leaves a hand free. Each man has an axe, a sword, and a knife, and keeps each by him at all times. The swords are broad and grooved, of Frankish sort.[19]
The adventures of these Swedish Vikings are commemorated on many runestones in Sweden, such as the Greece Runestones and the Varangian Runestones. There was also considerable participation in expeditions westwards, which are commemorated on stones such as the England Runestones. The last major Swedish Viking expedition appears to have been the ill-fated expedition of Ingvar the Far-Travelled to Serkland, the region south-east of the Caspian Sea. Its members are commemorated on the Ingvar Runestones, none of which mentions any survivor. What happened to the crew is unknown, but it is believed that they died of sickness.
It is not known when and how the kingdom of Sweden was born, but the list of Swedish monarchs is drawn from the first kings known to have ruled both Svealand (Sweden) and Götaland (Gothia) as one province, beginning with Eric the Victorious. Sweden and Gothia were two separate nations long before that into antiquity. It is not known how long they existed: the epic poem Beowulf describes semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the 6th century. By "Götaland" in this sense, mainly included the provinces of Östergötland (East Gothia) and Västergötland (West Gothia). The island of Gotland was disputed by other than Swedes, at this time (Danish, Hanseatic, and Gotland-domestic). Småland was at that time of little interest to anyone due to the deep pine forests, and only city of Kalmar with its castle was of importance. The south-west parts of the Scandinavian peninsula consisted of three Danish provinces (Scania, Blekinge and Halland). North of Halland Denmark had a direct border to Norway and its province Bohuslän. But there was Swedish settlements in south-west Finland, and along the southern coastline of Norrland. Most of this early Kingdom's borders were dizzy or unknown today. Mainly the culture and history of Svealand has been preserved better than those of Götaland.
During the early stages of the Scandinavian Viking Age, Ystad in Danish province Scania and Paviken on Gotland, were flourishing centres of trade, but they were not parts of the early Swedish Kingdom. Remains of what is believed to have been a large market dating from 600–700 AD have been found in Ystad.[20] In Paviken, an important centre of trade in the Baltic region during the 9th and 10th century, remains have been found of a large Viking Age harbour with shipbuilding yards and handicraft industries. Between 800 and 1000, trade brought an abundance of silver to Gotland, and according to some scholars, the Gotlanders of this era hoarded more silver than the rest of the population of Scandinavia combined.[20]
St. Ansgar is usually credited with introducing Christianity in 829, but the new religion did not begin to fully replace paganism until the 12th century. During the 11th century, Christianity became the most prevalent religion, and from 1050 Sweden is counted as a Christian nation. The period between 1100 and 1400 was characterized by internal power struggles and competition among the Nordic kingdoms. Swedish kings began to expand the Swedish-controlled territory in Finland, creating conflicts with the Rus who no longer had any connection with Sweden.[21]
Except for the provinces of Scania, Blekinge and Halland, in the south-west of the Scandinavian peninsula which were parts of the Kingdom of Denmark during this time, feudalism never developed in Sweden as it did in the rest of Europe.[22] The peasantry therefore remained largely a class of free farmers throughout most of Swedish history. Slavery (also called thralldom) was not common in Sweden,[23] and what slavery there was tended to be driven out of existence by the spread of Christianity, the difficulty in obtaining slaves from the lands east of the Baltic Sea, and by the development of cities before the 16th century.[24] Indeed, both slavery and serfdom were abolished altogether by a decree of King Magnus Erickson in 1335. Former slaves tended to be absorbed into the peasantry, and some became labourers in the towns. Still, Sweden remained a poor and economically backward country in which barter was the means of exchange. For instance, the farmers of the province of Dalsland would transport their butter to the mining districts of Sweden and exchange it there for iron, which they would then take to the coast and trade for fish, which they consumed, while the iron would be shipped abroad.[25]
In the middle of 14th century, Sweden was struck by the Black Death.[26] The population of Sweden and most of Europe was seriously decimated. And the population (at same territory) as existed by 1348 did not reach the same numbers again until the beginning of the 19th century. One third of the population died during 1349–1351. During this period the Swedish cities began to acquire greater rights and were strongly influenced by German merchants of the Hanseatic League, active especially at Visby. In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson, and in 1397 Queen Margaret I of Denmark effected the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through the Kalmar Union. However, Margaret's successors, whose rule was also centred in Denmark, were unable to control the Swedish nobility.
A large number of children inherited the Swedish crown over the course of the kingdom's existence; consequently real power was held for long periods by regents (notably those of the Sture family) chosen by the Swedish parliament. King Christian II of Denmark, who asserted his claim to Sweden by force of arms, ordered a massacre in 1520 of Swedish nobles in Stockholm. This came to be known as the "Stockholm blood bath" and stirred the Swedish nobility to new resistance and, on 6 June (now Sweden's national holiday) in 1523, they made Gustav Vasa their king.[27] This is sometimes considered as the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden into the Protestant Reformation.
The Hanseatic League had been officially formed at Lübeck on the Baltic coast of Northern Germany in 1356. The Hanseatic League sought civil and commercial privileges from the princes and royalty of the countries and cities along the coasts of the Baltic Sea.[28] In exchange, they offered a certain amount of protection. Having their own navy, the Hansa were able to sweep the Baltic Sea free of pirates.[29] The privileges obtained by the Hansa included assurances that only Hansa citizens would be allowed to trade from the ports where they were located. They sought agreement to be free of all customs and taxes. With these concessions, Lübeck merchants flocked to Stockholm, Sweden, where they soon came to dominate the economic life of the city, and made the port city of Stockholm into the leading commercial and industrial city of Sweden.[30] Under the Hanseatic trade, two-thirds of Stockholm's imports consisted of textiles and one-third of salt. Exports from Sweden consisted of iron and copper.[31]
However, the Swedes began to resent the monopoly trading position of the Hansa (mostly German citizens), and to resent the income they felt they lost to the Hansa. Consequently, when Gustav Vasa or Gustav I broke the monopoly power of the Hanseatic League he was regarded as a hero by the Swedish people.[32] History now views Gustav I as the father of the modern Swedish nation. The foundations laid by Gustav would take time to develop. Furthermore, when Sweden did develop, freed itself from the Hanseatic League, and entered its golden era, the fact that the peasantry had traditionally been free meant that more of the economic benefits flowed back to them rather than going to a feudal landowning class.[33]
During the 17th century Sweden emerged as a European great power. Before the emergence of the Swedish Empire, Sweden was a very poor and scarcely populated country on the fringe of European civilization, with no significant power or reputation. Sweden rose to prominence on a continental scale during the tenure of king Gustavus Adolphus, seizing territories from Russia and Poland–Lithuania in multiple conflicts, including the Thirty Years' War.
During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden conquered approximately half of the Holy Roman states. Gustav Adolphus planned to become the new Holy Roman Emperor, ruling over a united Scandinavia and the Holy Roman states, but he died at the Battle of Lützen in 1632. After the Battle of Nördlingen, Sweden's only significant military defeat of the war, pro-Swedish sentiment among the German states faded. These German provinces excluded themselves from Swedish power one by one, leaving Sweden with only a few northern German territories: Swedish Pomerania, Bremen-Verden and Wismar.
In the middle of the 17th century Sweden was the third-largest country in Europe by land area, only surpassed by Russia and Spain. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent under the rule of Charles X after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658.[34][35] The foundation of Sweden's success during this period is credited to Gustav I's major changes on the Swedish economy in the 16th century, and his introduction of Protestantism.[36] In the 17th century, Sweden was engaged in many wars, for example with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, with both sides competing for territories of today's Baltic states, with the disastrous Battle of Kircholm being one of the highlights.[37] One-third of the Finnish population died in the devastating famine that struck the country in 1696.[38] Famine also hit Sweden, killing roughly 10% of Sweden's population.[39]
The Swedes conducted a series of invasions into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, known as the Deluge. After more than half a century of almost constant warfare, the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It became the lifetime task of Charles' son, Charles XI, to rebuild the economy and refit the army. His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden, Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Sweden's largest threat at this time, Russia, had a larger army but was far behind in both equipment and training.
After the Battle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of the Great Northern War, the Russian army was so severely devastated that Sweden had an open chance to invade Russia. However, Charles did not pursue the Russian army, instead turning against Poland–Lithuania and defeating the Polish king, Augustus II, and his Saxon allies at the Battle of Kliszow in 1702. This gave Russia time to rebuild and modernize its army.
After the success of invading Poland, Charles decided to make an attempt at invading Russia, but this ended in a decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. After a long march exposed to Cossack raids, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth techniques and the extremely cold winter of 1709, the Swedes stood weakened with a shattered morale and were enormously outnumbered against the Russian army at Poltava. The defeat meant the beginning of the end for the Swedish Empire. In addition, the plague raging in East Central Europe devastated the Swedish dominions and reached Central Sweden in 1710.
Charles XII attempted to invade Norway in 1716, but he was shot dead at Fredriksten fortress in 1718. The Swedes were not militarily defeated at Fredriksten, but the whole structure and organization of the campaign fell apart with the king's death, and the army withdrew.
Forced to cede large areas of land in the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden also lost its place as an empire and as the dominant state on the Baltic Sea. With Sweden's lost influence, Russia emerged as an empire and became one of Europe's dominant nations. As the war finally ended in 1721, Sweden had lost an estimated 200,000 men, 150,000 of those from the area of present-day Sweden and 50,000 from the Finnish part of Sweden.[40]
In the 18th century, Sweden did not have enough resources to maintain its territories outside Scandinavia, and most of them were lost, culminating with the loss in 1809 of eastern Sweden to Russia, which became the highly autonomous Grand Principality of Finland in Imperial Russia.
In interest of re-establishing Swedish dominance in the Baltic Sea, Sweden allied itself against its traditional ally and benefactor, France, in the Napoleonic Wars. Sweden's role in the Battle of Leipzig gave it the authority to force Denmark–Norway, an ally of France, to cede Norway to the King of Sweden on 14 January 1814 in exchange for northern German provinces, at the Treaty of Kiel. The Norwegian attempts to keep their status as a sovereign state were rejected by the Swedish king, Charles XIII. He launched a military campaign against Norway on 27 July 1814, ending in the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a personal union with Sweden under the Swedish crown, which lasted until 1905. The 1814 campaign was the last time Sweden was at war.
There was a significant population increase during the 18th and 19th centuries, which the writer Esaias Tegnér in 1833 attributed to "the peace, the smallpox vaccine, and the potatoes".[41] Between 1750 and 1850, the population in Sweden doubled. According to some scholars, mass emigration to America became the only way to prevent famine and rebellion; over 1% of the population emigrated annually during the 1880s.[42] Nevertheless, Sweden remained poor, retaining a nearly entirely agricultural economy even as Denmark and Western European countries began to industrialize.[42][43]
Many looked towards America for a better life during this time. It is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States.[44] In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city).[45] Most Swedish immigrants moved to the Midwestern United States, with a large population in Minnesota, with a few others moving to other parts of the United States and Canada.
Despite the slow rate of industrialization into the 19th century, many important changes were taking place in the agrarian economy because of innovations and the large population growth.[46] These innovations included government-sponsored programmes of enclosure, aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, and the introduction of new crops such as the potato.[46] Because the Swedish peasantry had never been enserfed as elsewhere in Europe,[47] the Swedish farming culture began to take on a critical role in Swedish politics, which has continued through modern times with modern Agrarian party (now called the Centre Party).[48] Between 1870 and 1914, Sweden began developing the industrialized economy that exists today.[49]
Strong grassroots movements sprung up in Sweden during the latter half of the 19th century (trade unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups), creating a strong foundation of democratic principles. In 1889 The Swedish Social Democratic Party was founded. These movements precipitated Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the 20th century, people gradually moved into cities to work in factories and became involved in socialist unions. A communist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.
Sweden was officially neutral during World War I, although, under German pressure, they did take steps which were detrimental to the Allied powers including mining the Oresund channel, thus closing it to Allied shipping, and allowing the Germans to use Swedish facilities and the Swedish cipher to transmit secret messages to their overseas embassies.[50] Sweden also provided volunteers fighting for the White Guards together with the Germans against the Reds and Russians in the Finnish Civil War, and briefly occupied the Aland islands in co-operation with Germany.
As in the first world war, Sweden remained officially neutral during World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed.[51][52] Sweden was under German influence for much of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades.[51] The Swedish government felt that it was in no position to openly contest Germany,[53] and therefore made some concessions.[54] Sweden also supplied steel and machined parts to Germany throughout the war. However, Sweden supported Norwegian resistance, and in 1943 helped rescue Danish Jews from deportation to concentration camps. The Swedish government also unofficially supported Finland in the Winter War and the Continuation War by allowing volunteers and materiel to be shipped to Finland.
Toward the end of the war, Sweden began to play a role in humanitarian efforts, and many refugees, among them several thousand Jews from Nazi-occupied Europe, were saved partly because of the Swedish involvement in rescue missions at the internment camps and partly because Sweden served as a haven for refugees, primarily from the Nordic countries and the Baltic states.[53] The Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg and his colleagues may have saved up to 100,000 Hungarian Jews.[55] Nevertheless, both Swedes and others have argued that Sweden could have done more to oppose the Nazi's war efforts, even if it meant increasing the risk of occupation.[53]
Sweden was officially a neutral country and remained outside NATO and Warsaw pact membership during the Cold War, but privately Sweden's leadership had strong ties with the United States and other western governments. Following the war, Sweden took advantage of an intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe.[56] Sweden received aid under the Marshall Plan and participated in the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). During most of the post-war era, the country was governed by the Swedish Social Democratic Party largely in cooperation with trade unions and industry. The government actively pursued an internationally competitive manufacturing sector of primarily large corporations.[57]
Sweden was one of the founding states of the European Free Trade Area. During the 1960s the EFTA countries were often referred to as the Outer Seven, as opposed to the Inner Six of the then-European Economic Community (EEC).[58]
Sweden, like countries around the globe, entered a period of economic decline and upheaval following the oil embargoes of 1973–74 and 1978–79.[59] In the 1980s pillars of Swedish industry were massively restructured.[by whom?] Shipbuilding was discontinued, wood pulp was integrated into modernized paper production, the steel industry was concentrated and specialized, and mechanical engineering was robotized.[60]
Between 1970 and 1990 the overall tax burden rose by over 10%, and the growth was low compared to other countries in Western Europe. Eventually government began to spend over half of the country's gross domestic product. Sweden GDP per capita ranking declined during this time.[57]
A bursting real estate bubble caused by inadequate controls on lending combined with an international recession and a policy switch from anti-unemployment policies to anti-inflationary policies resulted in a fiscal crisis in the early 1990s.[61] Sweden's GDP declined by around 5%. In 1992, a run on the currency caused the central bank to briefly increase interest rates to 500%.[62][63]
The response of the government was to cut spending and institute a multitude of reforms to improve Sweden's competitiveness, among them reducing the welfare state and privatizing public services and goods. Much of the political establishment promoted EU membership, and a referendum passed with 52.3% in favour of joining the EU on 13 November 1994. Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995.
Sweden remains non-aligned militarily, although it participates in some joint military exercises with NATO and some other countries, in addition to extensive cooperation with other European countries in the area of defence technology and defence industry. Among others, Swedish companies export weapons that were used by the American military in Iraq.[64] Sweden also has a long history of participating in international military operations, including most recently, Afghanistan, where Swedish troops are under NATO command, and in EU sponsored peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Cyprus. Sweden also participated in enforcing a UN mandated no-fly zone over Libya during the Arab Spring. Sweden held the chair of the European Union from 1 July to 31 December 2009.
In recent decades Sweden has become a more culturally diverse nation due to significant immigration; in 2013 it was estimated that 15 per cent of the population was foreign-born, and an additional 5 per cent of the population were born to two immigrant parents. The influx of immigrants has brought new social challenges. Violent incidents have periodically occurred[65][66] including the 2013 Stockholm riots which broke out following the police shooting of an elderly Portuguese immigrant.[67] In response to these violent events, the far-right opposition party, the Swedish Democrats, promoted their anti-immigration policies, while the left wing opposition blamed growing inequality caused by the centre-right government's socio-economic policies.[68]
Situated in Northern Europe, Sweden lies west of the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and forms the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway. Finland is located to its north-east. It has maritime borders with Denmark, Germany, Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, and it is also linked to Denmark (south-west) by the Öresund Bridge. Its border with Norway (1,619 km long) is the longest uninterrupted border within Europe.
Sweden lies between latitudes 55° and 70° N, and mostly between longitudes 11° and 25° E (part of Stora Drammen island is just west of 11°).
At 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi), Sweden is the 55th-largest country in the world,[69] the 4th-largest country entirely in Europe, and the largest in Northern Europe. The lowest elevation in Sweden is in the bay of Lake Hammarsjön, near Kristianstad, at −2.41 m (−7.91 ft) below sea level. The highest point is Kebnekaise at 2,111 m (6,926 ft) above sea level.
Sweden has 25 provinces or landskap (landscapes), based on culture, geography and history. While these provinces serve no political or administrative purpose, they play an important role in people's self-identity. The provinces are usually grouped together in three large lands, parts, the northern Norrland, the central Svealand and southern Götaland. The sparsely populated Norrland encompasses almost 60% of the country.
About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle. Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, with increasing forest coverage northward. Around 65% of Sweden's total land area is covered with forests. The highest population density is in the Öresund Region in southern Sweden, along the western coast up to central Bohuslän, and in the valley of lake Mälaren and Stockholm. Gotland and Öland are Sweden's largest islands; Vänern and Vättern are its largest lakes. Vänern is the third largest in Europe, after Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega in Russia.
Most of Sweden has a temperate climate, despite its northern latitude, with four distinct seasons and mild temperatures throughout the year. The country can be divided into three types of climate; the southernmost part has an oceanic climate, the central part has a humid continental climate and the northernmost part has a subarctic climate. However, Sweden is much warmer and drier than other places at a similar latitude, and even somewhat farther south, mainly because of the Gulf Stream.[70][71] For example, central and southern Sweden has much warmer winters than many parts of Russia, Canada, and the northern United States.[72] Because of its high latitude, the length of daylight varies greatly. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and it never rises for part of each winter. In the capital, Stockholm, daylight lasts for more than 18 hours in late June but only around 6 hours in late December. Sweden receives between 1,100 to 1,900 hours of sunshine annually.[73]
Temperatures vary greatly from north to south. Southern and central parts of the country have warm summers and cold winters, with average high temperatures of 20 to 25 °C (68 to 77 °F) in the summer, and average temperatures of −4 to 2 °C (25 to 36 °F) in the winter, while the northern part of the country has shorter, cooler summers and longer, colder and snowier winters, with temperatures that often drop below freezing from September to May. The highest temperature ever recorded in Sweden was 38 °C (100 °F) in Målilla in 1947, while the coldest temperature ever recorded was −52.6 °C (−62.7 °F) in Vuoggatjålme in 1966. Temperatures expected in Sweden are heavily influenced by the large Scandinavian landmass and to an extent by the entire Eurasian supercontinent, which allows hot or cool inland air to be easily transported to Sweden. That in turn renders the most of Sweden's densely-populated areas having hotter summers than almost everywhere in the nearby British Isles, even matching temperatures found along the continental Atlantic coast as far south as in northern Spain. In winter however the same high-pressure systems sometimes puts the entire country far below freezing temperatures. There is some maritime moderation from the Atlantic which renders the Swedish continental climate less severe than that of nearby Russia. Even though temperature patterns differ between north and south, the summer climate is surprisingly similar all through the entire country in spite of the large differences in terms of distance to the equator.
On average, most of Sweden receives between 500 and 800 mm (20 and 31 in) of precipitation each year, making it considerably drier than the global average. The south-western part of the country receives more precipitation, between 1,000 and 1,200 mm (39 and 47 in), and some mountain areas in the north are estimated to receive up to 2,000 mm (79 in). Despite northerly locations, southern and central Sweden may have almost no snow in some winters.
| City | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kiruna | −10/−16 | −8/−15 | −4/−13 | 2/−7 | 8/0 | 14/6 | 17/8 | 14/6 | 9/2 | 1/−4 | −5/−10 | −8/−15 |
| Östersund | −5/−10 | −3/−9 | 0/−6 | 5/−2 | 12/3 | 16/8 | 18/10 | 17/10 | 12/6 | 6/2 | 0/−3 | −3/−8 |
| Stockholm | 1/−2 | 1/−3 | 4/−2 | 11/3 | 16/8 | 20/12 | 23/15 | 22/14 | 17/10 | 10/6 | 5/2 | 1/−1 |
| Gothenburg (Göteborg) | 2/−1 | 4/−1 | 6/0 | 11/3 | 16/8 | 19/12 | 22/14 | 22/14 | 18/10 | 12/6 | 7/3 | 3/−1 |
| Visby | 1/−2 | 1/−3 | 3/−2 | 9/1 | 14/6 | 18/10 | 21/13 | 20/13 | 16/9 | 10/6 | 5/2 | 2/0 |
| Malmö | 3/−1 | 3/−1 | 6/0 | 12/3 | 17/8 | 19/11 | 22/13 | 22/14 | 18/10 | 12/6 | 8/4 | 4/1 |
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, in which King Carl XVI Gustaf is head of state, but royal power has long been limited to ceremonial and representative functions.[75] The Economist Intelligence Unit, while acknowledging that democracy is difficult to measure, listed Sweden in fourth place in 2010 in its index of democracy assessing 167 countries.
The nation's legislative body is the Riksdag (Swedish Parliament), with 349 members, which chooses the Prime Minister. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, on the third Sunday of September.
According to the 1974 Instrument of Government, the king's duties are solely of a representative and ceremonial nature. He no longer formally appoints the Prime Minister; that prerogative is now exercised by the Speaker of the Riksdag on the behalf of that body. Bills passed by the Riksdag do not need his signature to become law. The king still opens the Annual Session of the Riksdag, chairs the Special Council held during a change of Government, holds regular Information Councils with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, chairs the meetings of the Foreign Affairs Council, and receives Letters of Credence of foreign ambassadors to Sweden and signs those of Sweden to foreign nations. As this type of figurehead, he also voluntarily abstains from voting in Swedish elections.[76] In addition, the king pays State Visits abroad and receives those to Sweden, and holds the highest ranks in the three branches of the Swedish Armed Forces, though he no longer has even the formal position of commander-in-chief (unlike many other European monarchies).
The 349-member Riksdag (Parliament) holds supreme authority in modern Sweden, according to its constitution. The Riksdag is responsible for choosing the prime minister, who then appoints the government department heads (cabinet ministers). Legislative power is only exercised by the Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and the cabinet, while the judiciary is independent. Sweden lacks compulsory judicial review, although the non-compulsory review carried out by lagrådet (Law Council) is mostly respected in technical matters but less so in controversial political matters. Acts of the Riksdag and government decrees can be made inapplicable at every level if they are manifestly against constitutional laws. However, because of the restrictions in this form of judicial review and a weak judiciary, this has had little practical consequence.
Legislation may be initiated by the cabinet or by members of the Riksdag. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation to a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a simple but absolute majority with two separate votes, separated by general elections in between. Sweden has four constitutional laws: the Instrument of Government, the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.
The Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a leading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only five general elections (1976, 1979, 1991, 2006 and 2010) have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in the Riksdag to form a government. However, due to poor economic performance since the beginning of the 1970s, and especially since the fiscal crisis of the early 1990s, Sweden's political system has become less one-sided, and more like other European countries.
In the 2006 general election the Moderate Party, allied with the Centre Party, Liberal People's Party, and the Christian Democrats, formed the centre-right Alliance for Sweden and won a majority of the votes. Together they formed a majority government under the leadership of the Moderate party's leader, Fredrik Reinfeldt. In the 2010 general election the Alliance contended against a unified left block consisting of the Social Democrats, the Greens and the Left Party. It was also the first time the Sweden Democrats were elected to the Riksdag.[77]
Following is the current party composition of the Riksdag (correct at June 2013[update]), organized by the political spectrum into the categories of centre-right and centre-left:[78]
| English name | Swedish name | Abbr. | Seats | In Government |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| centre-right parties | 173 | |||
| Moderate Party | Moderata samlingspartiet | (M) | 107 | Yes |
| Liberal People's Party | Folkpartiet liberalerna | (FP) | 24 | Yes |
| Centre Party | Centerpartiet | (C) | 23 | Yes |
| Christian Democrats | Kristdemokraterna | (KD) | 19 | Yes |
| left-of-centre parties[79] | 156 | |||
| Social Democrats | Socialdemokraterna | (S) | 112 | No |
| The Greens | Miljöpartiet | (MP) | 25 | No |
| Left Party | Vänsterpartiet | (V) | 19 | No |
| far right party[80] | 20 | |||
| Sweden Democrats | Sverigedemokraterna | (SD) | 20 | No |
| Total parliament | 349 | |||
The Alliance won a plurality of 173 seats, but remained two seats short of a 175-seat majority. Nevertheless, neither the Alliance, nor the left block, chose to form a coalition with the Sweden Democrats, and the Alliance is currently governing as a minority government.[81]
Election turnout in Sweden has always been high by international comparison, although it has declined in recent decades, and is currently around 80% (80.11% in 2002, 81.99% in 2006 and 84.63% in 2010). Swedish politicians enjoyed a high degree of confidence from the citizens in the 1960s, However, that level of confidence has since declined steadily, and is now at a markedly lower level than in its Scandinavian neighbours.[82]
Some Swedish political figures have become known worldwide, among these are: Raoul Wallenberg, Folke Bernadotte, the former Secretary-General of the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld, the former Prime Minister Olof Palme, the former Prime Minister and present Foreign minister Carl Bildt, the former President of the General Assembly of the United Nations Jan Eliasson, and the former International Atomic Energy Agency Iraq inspector Hans Blix.
Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into twenty-one counties (län): Stockholm, Uppsala, Södermanland, Östergötland, Jönköping, Kronoberg, Kalmar, Gotland, Blekinge, Skåne, Halland, Västra Götaland, Värmland, Örebro, Västmanland, Dalarna, Gävleborg, Västernorrland, Jämtland, Västerbotten and Norrbotten.
Each county has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse, which is a Government appointed board. It is led by a Governor or Landshövding appointed for a term of six years and the list of succession, in most cases, stretches back to 1634 when the counties were created by the Swedish Lord High Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. The main responsibility of the County Administrative Board is to coordinate the development of the county in line with goals set in national politics. In each county there is also a County Council or landsting which is a policy-making assembly elected by the residents of the county.
Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, with a total of 290 municipalities in 2004. Municipal government in Sweden is similar to city commission government and cabinet-style council government. A legislative municipal assembly (kommunfullmäktige) of between 31 and 101 members (always an uneven number) is elected from party-list proportional representation at municipal elections, held every four years in conjunction with the national parliamentary elections.
The municipalities are divided into a total of 2,512 parishes, or församlingar. These have traditionally been a subdivision of the Church of Sweden but still have importance as districts for census and elections. There are older historical divisions, primarily the twenty-five provinces and three lands, which still retain cultural significance.
The actual age of the kingdom of Sweden is unknown.[83] It depends mostly on whether Sweden should be considered a nation when the Svear (Sweonas) ruled Svealand or if the emergence of the nation started with the Svear and the Götar (Geats) of Götaland being united under one ruler. In the first case, Sweden was first mentioned as having one single ruler in the year 98 by Tacitus, but it is almost impossible to know for how long it had been this way. However, historians usually start the line of Swedish monarchs from when Svealand and Götaland were ruled under the same king, namely Eric the Victorious (Geat) and his son Olof Skötkonung in the 10th century. These events are often described as the consolidation of Sweden, although substantial areas were conquered and incorporated later.
Earlier kings, for which no reliable historical sources exist, can be read about in mythical kings of Sweden and semi-legendary kings of Sweden. Many of these kings are only mentioned in various saga and blend with Norse mythology.
The title Sveriges och Götes Konung was last used for Gustaf I of Sweden, after which the title became "King of Sweden, of the Goths and of the Wends" (Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung) in official documentation. Up until the beginning of the 1920s, all laws in Sweden were introduced with the words, "We, the king of Sweden, of the Goths and Wends". This title was used up until 1973.[84] The present King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, was the first monarch officially proclaimed "King of Sweden" (Sveriges Konung) with no additional peoples mentioned in his title.
The term riksdag was used for the first time in the 1540s, although the first meeting where representatives of different social groups were called to discuss and determine affairs affecting the country as a whole took place as early as 1435, in the town of Arboga.[85] During the assemblies of 1527 and 1544, under King Gustav Vasa, representatives of all four estates of the realm (clergy, nobility, townsmen and peasants) were called on to participate for the first time.[85] The monarchy became hereditary in 1544.
Executive power was historically shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Riksdag. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic, head of state with ceremonial duties.
The Riksdag of the Estates consisted of two chambers. In 1866 Sweden became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, with the First Chamber indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. In 1971 the parliament became unicameral. Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. Swedish taxation is controlled by the Riksdag.
Sweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary people through its "popular movements" (Folkrörelser), the most notable being trade unions, the independent Christian movement, the temperance movement, the women's movement and more recently the intellectual property pirate movements. Sweden was the first country in the world to outlaw corporal punishment of children by their parents (parents' right to spank their own children was first removed in 1966, and it was explicitly prohibited by law from July 1979).[86]
Sweden is currently leading the EU in statistics measuring equality in the political system and equality in the education system.[87] The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 ranked Sweden as the number one country in terms of gender equality.[88]
The Supreme Court of Sweden is the third and final instance in all civil and criminal cases in Sweden. Before a case can be decided by the Supreme Court, leave to appeal must be obtained, and with few exceptions, leave to appeal can be granted only when the case is of interest as a precedent. The Supreme Court consists of 16 Councillors of Justice, or justitieråd, which are appointed by the government, but the court as an institution is independent of the Riksdag, and the government is not able to interfere with the decisions of the court.
The law is enforced in Sweden by several government entities. The Swedish Police Service is a Government agency concerned with police matters. The National Task Force is a national SWAT unit within the National Criminal Investigation Department. The Swedish Security Service's responsibilities are counter-espionage, anti-terrorist activities, protection of the constitution and protection of sensitive objects and people.
According to a victimization survey of 1,201 residents in 2005, Sweden has above-average crime rates compared to other EU countries. Sweden has high or above-average levels of assaults, sexual assaults, hate crimes, and consumer fraud. Sweden has low levels of burglary, car theft and drug problems. Bribe seeking is rare.[89]
A mid-November 2013 news report announced that four prisons in Sweden were closed during the year due to a significant drop in the number of inmates. The decrease in the number of Swedish prisoners was considered "out-of-the-ordinary" by the head of Sweden's prison and probation services, with prison numbers in Sweden falling by around 1% a year since 2004. Prisons were closed in the towns of Åby, Håja, Båtshagen, and Kristianstad.[90]
Throughout the 20th century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. Sweden's government pursued an independent course of nonalignment in times of peace so that neutrality would be possible in the event of war.[56]
Sweden's doctrine of neutrality is often traced back to the 19th century as the country has not been in a state of war since the end of the Swedish campaign against Norway in 1814. During World War II Sweden joined neither the allied nor axis powers. This has sometimes been disputed since in effect Sweden allowed in select cases the Nazi regime to use its railroad system to transport troops and goods,[51][53] especially iron ore from mines in northern Sweden, which was vital to the German war machine.[53][91] However, Sweden also indirectly contributed to the defence of Finland in the Winter War, and permitted the training of Norwegian and Danish troops in Sweden after 1943.
During the early Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment and a low profile in international affairs with a security policy based on strong national defence.[92] The function of the Swedish military was to deter attack.[93] At the same time, the country maintained relatively close informal connections with the Western bloc, especially in the realm of intelligence exchange. In 1952, a Swedish DC-3 was shot down over the Baltic Sea by a Soviet MiG-15 jet fighter. Later investigations revealed that the plane was actually gathering information for NATO.[94] Another plane, a Catalina search and rescue plane, was sent out a few days later and shot down by the Soviets as well. Olof Palme, the former prime minister of Sweden, visited Cuba during the 1970s and showed his support for Cuba in his speech.
Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. It involved itself significantly in international peace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support to the Third World. Since the assassination of Olof Palme in 1986 and the end of the Cold War, Sweden has adopted a more traditional foreign policy approach. Nevertheless, the country remains active in peace keeping missions and maintains a considerable foreign aid budget.
In 1981 a Soviet Whiskey-class submarine ran aground close to the Swedish naval base at Karlskrona in the southern part of the country. Research has never clearly established whether the submarine ended up on the shoals through a navigational mistake or if an enemy committed espionage against Swedish military potential. The incident triggered a diplomatic crisis between Sweden and the Soviet Union.
Since 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in European security co-operation.
Försvarsmakten (Swedish Armed Forces) is a government agency reporting to the Swedish Ministry of Defence and responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peace support forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided into Army, Air Force and Navy. The head of the armed forces is the Supreme Commander (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), the most senior officer in the country. Up to 1974 the head of state (the King) was pro forma Commander-in-Chief, but in reality it was clearly understood all through the 20th century that the Monarch would have no active role as a military leader.
When King Gustav V asserted his right to decide and bypass the government in military matters just before the First World War ("borggårdskrisen", the Castle Court Crisis) it was seen as a deliberate provocation against established terms of how the country would be ruled. The office of an appointed Supreme Commander was set up in 1939; before that date, from the late 19th century onwards, the leading men of the army and navy would report directly to the cabinet (and the king), and no fully unified command existed in the professional military sphere itself.
Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent years, the number of conscripted males has shrunk dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has increased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits, rather than solely those otherwise most fit for service. All soldiers serving abroad must by law be volunteers. In 1975 the total number of conscripts was 45,000. By 2003 it was down to 15,000.
On 1 July 2010 Sweden stopped routine conscription, switching to an all volunteer force unless otherwise required for defence readiness.[95][96][97] The need to recruit only the soldiers later prepared to volunteer for international service will be emphasized. The total forces gathered would consist of about 60,000 men. This could be compared with the 80s before the fall of the Soviet Union, when Sweden could gather up to 1,000,000 men.
Swedish units have taken part in peacekeeping operations in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Liberia, Lebanon, Afghanistan and Chad.
Currently, one of the most important tasks for the Swedish Armed Forces has been to form a Swedish-led EU Battle Group to which Norway, Finland, Ireland and Estonia will also contribute.[98] The Nordic Battle Group (NBG) had a 10-day deployment readiness during the first half of 2008 and, although Swedish-led, had its Operational Headquarters (OHQ) in Northwood, outside London.
Sweden is the seventh-richest country in the world in terms of GDP (gross domestic product) per capita and a high standard of living is experienced by its citizens. Sweden is an export-oriented mixed economy. Timber, hydropower and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy with a heavy emphasis on foreign trade. Sweden's engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports, while telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are also of great importance. Sweden is the ninth-largest arms exporter in the world. Agriculture accounts for 2% of GDP and employment. The country ranks among the highest for telephone and Internet access penetration.[99]
In 2010 Sweden's income Gini coefficient was the third lowest among developed countries, at 0.25—slightly higher than Japan and Denmark—suggesting Sweden had low income inequality. However, Sweden's wealth Gini coefficient at 0.853 was the second highest in developed countries, and above European and North American averages, suggesting high wealth inequality.[100][101] Even on a disposable income basis, the geographical distribution of Gini coefficient of income inequality varies within different regions and municipalities of Sweden. Danderyd, outside Stockholm, has Sweden's highest Gini coefficient of income inequality, at 0.55, while Hofors near Gävle has the lowest at 0.25. In and around Stockholm and Scania, two of the more densely populated regions of Sweden, the income Gini coefficient is between 0.35 and 0.55.[102]
In terms of structure, the Swedish economy is characterised by a large, knowledge-intensive and export-oriented manufacturing sector; an increasing, but comparatively small, business service sector; and by international standards, a large public service sector. Large organisations, both in manufacturing and services, dominate the Swedish economy.[103] High and medium-high technology manufacturing accounts for 9.9% of GDP.[104]
The 20 largest (by turnover) registered Swedish companies in 2007 were Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, IKEA, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan and SKF.[105] The vast majority of Sweden's industry is privately controlled, unlike many other industrialised Western countries, and, in accordance with a historical standard, publicly owned enterprises are of minor importance.
An estimated 4.5 million Swedish residents are employed and around a third of the workforce completed tertiary education. In terms of GDP per-hour-worked, Sweden was the world's ninth highest in 2006 at US$31, compared to US$22 in Spain and US$35 in the United States.[106] GDP per-hour-worked is growing 2.5% per year for the economy as a whole and the trade-terms-balanced productivity growth is 2%.[106] According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), deregulation, globalisation, and technology sector growth have been key productivity drivers.[106] Sweden is a world leader in privatised pensions and pension funding problems are relatively small compared to many other Western European countries.[107] A pilot program to test the feasibility of a six-hour workday, without loss of pay, will commence in 2014, involving the participation of Gothenburg municipal staff. The Swedish government is seeking to reduce its costs through decreased sick leave hours and increased efficiency.[108]
The typical worker receives 40% of his or her labour costs after the tax wedge. Total tax collected by Sweden as a percentage of its GDP peaked at 52.3% in 1990.[109] The country faced a real estate and banking crisis in 1990-1991, and consequently passed tax reforms in 1991 to implement tax rate cuts and tax base broadening over time.[110][111] Since 1990, taxes as a percentage of GDP collected by Sweden has been dropping, with total tax rates for the highest income earners dropping the most.[112] In 2010 45.8% of the country's GDP was collected as taxes, the second highest among OECD countries, and nearly double the percentage in the US or South Korea.[109] Tax income-financed employment represents a third of the Swedish workforce, a substantially higher proportion than in most other countries. Overall, GDP growth has been fast since reforms—especially those in manufacturing—were enacted in the early 1990s.[113]
Sweden is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013.[16] Sweden is ranked fourth in the IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2013.[114] According to the book The Flight of the Creative Class by the U.S. economist Professor Richard Florida of the University of Toronto, Sweden is ranked as having the best creativity in Europe for business and is predicted to become a talent magnet for the world's most purposeful workers. The book compiled an index to measure the kind of creativity it claims is most useful to business—talent, technology and tolerance.[115]
Sweden maintains its own currency, the Swedish krona (SEK), a result of the Swedes having rejected the euro in a referendum. The Swedish Riksbank—founded in 1668 and thus making it the oldest central bank in the world—is currently focusing on price stability with an inflation target of 2%. According to the Economic Survey of Sweden 2007 by the OECD, the average inflation in Sweden has been one of the lowest among European countries since the mid-1990s, largely because of deregulation and quick utilisation of globalisation.[106]
The largest trade flows are with Germany, the United States, Norway, the United Kingdom, Denmark and Finland.
Financial deregulation in the 1980s impacted adversely on the property market, leading to a bubble and eventually a crash in the early 1990s. Commercial property prices fell by up to two thirds, resulting in two Swedish banks having to be taken over by the government. In the following two decades the property sector strengthened. By 2014, legislators, economists and the IMF were again warning of a bubble with residential property prices soaring and the level of personal mortgage debt expanding. Household debt-to-income rose above 170% as the IMF was calling on legislators to consider zoning reform and other means of generating a greater supply of housing as demand was outstripping what was available, pushing prices higher. By August 2014, 40% of home borrowers had interest-only loans while those that didn't were repaying principal at a rate that would take 100 years to fully repay.[116]
Sweden's energy market is largely privatized. The Nordic energy market is one of the first liberalized energy markets in Europe and it is traded in NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe and Nord Pool Spot. In 2006, out of a total electricity production of 139 TWh, electricity from hydropower accounted for 61 TWh (44%), and nuclear power delivered 65 TWh (47%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh (9%) of electricity, while wind power produced 1 TWh (1%). Sweden was a net importer of electricity by a margin of 6 TWh.[117] Biomass is mainly used to produce heat for district heating and central heating and industry processes.
The 1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels. Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. The use of nuclear power has been limited, however. Among other things, the accident of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (United States) prompted the Riksdag to ban new nuclear plants. In March 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or increasing nuclear power.[118] Politicians have made announcements about oil phase-out in Sweden, decrease of nuclear power, and multi-billion dollar investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency.[119][120] The country has for many years pursued a strategy of indirect taxation as an instrument of environmental policy, including energy taxes in general and carbon dioxide taxes in particular.[119]
Sweden has 162,707 km (101,101 mi) of paved road and 1,428 km (887 mi) of expressways. Motorways run through Sweden, Denmark and over the Öresund Bridge to Stockholm, Gothenburg, Uppsala and Uddevalla. The system of motorways is still under construction and a new motorway from Uppsala to Gävle was finished on 17 October 2007. Sweden had left-hand traffic (Vänstertrafik in Swedish) from approximately 1736 and continued to do so well into the 20th century. Voters rejected right-hand traffic in 1955, but after the Riksdag passed legislation in 1963 changeover took place in 1967, known in Swedish as Dagen H.
The Stockholm metro is the only subway system in Sweden and serves the city of Stockholm via 100 stations. The rail transport market is privatized, but while there are many privately owned enterprises, many operators are still owned by state. The counties have financing, ticket and marketing responsibility for local trains. For other trains the operators handle tickets and marketing themselves. Operators include SJ, Veolia Transport, DSB, Green Cargo, Tågkompaniet and Inlandsbanan. Most of the railways are owned and operated by Trafikverket.
The largest airports include Stockholm-Arlanda Airport (16.1 million passengers in 2009) 40 km (25 mi) north of Stockholm, Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport (4.3 million passengers in 2008), and Stockholm-Skavsta Airport (2.0 million passengers). Sweden hosts the two largest port companies in Scandinavia, Port of Göteborg AB (Gothenburg) and the transnational company Copenhagen Malmö Port AB.
Sweden has one of the most highly developed welfare states in the world. According to a 2012 OECD report, the country had the second-highest public social spending as a percentage of its GDP after France (27.3% and 28.4%, respectively), and the third-highest total (public and private) social spending at 30.2% of its GDP, after France and Belgium (31.3% and 31.0%, respectively).[121] Sweden spent 6.3% of its GDP, the 9th-highest among 34 OECD countries, to provide equal access to education.[122] On health care, the country spent 10.0% of its total GDP, the 12th highest.[123]
Historically, Sweden provided solid support for free trade (except agriculture) and mostly relatively strong and stable property rights (both private and public), though some economists have pointed out that Sweden promoted industries with tariffs and used publicly subsidised R&D during the country's early critical years of industrialisation.[124] After World War II a succession of governments expanded the welfare state by raising the taxes. During this period Sweden's economic growth was also one of the highest in the industrial world. A series of successive social reforms transformed the country into one of the most equal and developed on earth. The consistent growth of the welfare state led to Swedes achieving unprecedented levels of social mobility and quality of life—to this day Sweden consistently ranks at the top of league tables for health, literacy and Human Development—far ahead of some wealthier countries (for example the United States).[125]
However, from the 1970s and onwards Sweden's GDP growth fell behind other industrialised countries and the country's per capita ranking fell from 4th to 14th place in a few decades.[126] From the mid-1990s until today Sweden's economic growth has once again accelerated and has been higher than in most other industrialised countries (including the US) during the last 15 years.[127]
Sweden began slowing the expansion of the welfare state in the 1980s, and even trimming it back, and according to the OECD and McKinsey, Sweden has recently been relatively quick to adopt economic liberalization policies, such as deregulation, compared to countries such as France.[106][128] The current Swedish government is continuing the trend of moderate rollbacks of previous social reforms.[106][129] Growth has been higher than in many other EU-15 countries. Also since the mid-1980s, Sweden has had the fastest growth in inequality of any developed nation, according to the OECD. This has largely been attributed to the reduction in state benefits and a shift toward the privatization of public services. According to Barbro Sorman, an activist of the opposition Left Party, "The rich are getting richer, and the poor are getting poorer. Sweden is starting to look like the USA." Nevertheless, it remains far more egalitarian than most nations.[68][130]
Sweden adopted free market agricultural policies in 1990. Since the 1930s, the agricultural sector had been subject to price controls. In June 1990, the Riksdag voted for a new agricultural policy marking a significant shift away from price controls. As a result, food prices fell somewhat. However, the liberalizations soon became moot because EU agricultural controls supervened.[131]
Since the late 1960s, Sweden has had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialised world, although today the gap has narrowed and Denmark has surpassed Sweden as the most heavily taxed country among developed countries. Sweden has a two-step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20–25% when a salary exceeds roughly 320,000 SEK per year. Payroll taxes amount to 32%. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens, with the exception of food (12% VAT), transportation, and books (6% VAT). Certain items are subject to additional taxes, e.g. electricity, petrol/diesel and alcoholic beverages.
In 2007[update], total tax revenue was 47.8% of GDP, the second-highest tax burden among developed countries, down from 49.1% 2006.[132] Sweden's inverted tax wedge – the amount going to the service worker's wallet – is approximately 15%, compared to 10% in Belgium, 30% in Ireland, and 50% in United States.[126] Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP. State and municipal employees total around a third of the workforce, much more than in most Western countries. Only Denmark has a larger public sector (38% of Danish workforce). Spending on transfers is also high.
Seventy per cent of the employed workers is organised in trade unions. Union density in 2012 was 67% among blue-collar-workers (most of them in the Swedish Trade Union Confederation, LO) and 73% among white-collar workers (most of them in the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees, TCO, and the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations, SACO).[133] Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Sweden has a relatively high amount of sick leave per worker in OECD: the average worker loses 24 days due to sickness.[113] In December 2008, the number employed in the 16–64 age group was 75.0%. The employment tendency was very strong in 2007. The positive trend continued during the first half of 2008, but the rate of increase slackened. According to Statistics Sweden, the unemployment rate in June 2012 was at 8.8%.[134] Unemployment among youth (aged 24 or younger) in 2012 was 24.2%, making Sweden the OECD country with the highest ratio of youth unemployment versus unemployment in general.[135]
Combined, the public and the private sector in Sweden allocate over 3.5% of GDP to research & development (R&D) per year, making Sweden's investment in R&D as a percentage of GDP the second-highest in the world.[136] For several decades the Swedish government has prioritized scientific and R&D activities. As a percentage of GDP, the Swedish government spends the most of any nation on research and development.[137] Sweden tops other European countries in the number of published scientific works per capita.[138]
In 2009, the decisions to construct Sweden's two largest scientific installations, the synchrotron radiation facility MAX IV and the European Spallation Source, were taken.[139][140] Both installations will be built in Lund. The European Spallation Source, costing some SEK 14 billion to construct,[141] will be operational in 2019 and will give an approximately 30 times stronger neutron beam than any of today's existing neutron source installations.[142] The MAX IV, costing some SEK 3 billion, will be operational in 2015. Both facilities have strong implications on material research.
Tycho Brahe, born in 1546 in an area of present-day Sweden which was then Denmark, made the careful astronomic observations upon which Kepler proved and quantified the heliocentric Copernican solar system.
In the 18th century Sweden's scientific revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from mainland Europe.
In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carolus Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. Many of the companies founded by early pioneers still remain major international brands. Gustaf Dalén founded AGA, and received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve. Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Lars Magnus Ericsson started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is along with Serbian inventor Nikola Tesla credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system.[143]
The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra Pak was an invention for storing liquid foods, invented by Erik Wallenberg. Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by AstraZeneca. More recently Håkan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors.[143]
Swedish inventors held 41,735 patents in the United States in 2012[update], according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office. As a nation, only ten other countries hold more patents than Sweden.[144]
The total population of Sweden was estimated to be 9,644,864 on 31 December 2013.[1][145] The population exceeded 9 million for the first time on approximately 12 August 2004 and 9.5 million in the spring of 2012, according to Statistics Sweden.[146][147] The population density is 20.6 people per km² (53.3 per square mile) and it is substantially higher in the south than in the north. About 85% of the population live in urban areas.[10] The capital city Stockholm has a population of about 800,000 (with 1.3 million in the urban area and 2 million in the metropolitan area). The second- and third-largest cities are Gothenburg and Malmö.
Between 1820 and 1930, approximately 1.3 million Swedes, a third of the country's population, emigrated to North America, and most of them to the United States. There are more than 4.4 million Swedish Americans according to a 2006 U.S. Census Bureau estimate.[148] In Canada, the community of Swedish ancestry is 330,000 strong.[149]
There are no official statistics on ethnicity, but according to Statistics Sweden around 1,921,000 (20.1%) inhabitants of Sweden were of a foreign background in 2012, defined as being born abroad or born in Sweden to two parents born abroad.[8][9] With the same definition, the most common countries of origin were Finland (2.38%), former Yugoslavia or its successing states (2.06%), Iraq (1.74%), Poland (0.91%) and Iran (0.84%).[150]
Largest cities or towns of Sweden
http://www.citypopulation.de/Sweden-UA.html#Stadt_alpha |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | County | Pop. | Rank | Name | County | Pop. | ||
Stockholm |
1 | Stockholm | Stockholm | 1,372,565 | 11 | Lund | Skåne | 82,800 | Malmö |
| 2 | Gothenburg | Västra Götaland | 549,839 | 12 | Umeå | Västerbotten | 79,594 | ||
| 3 | Malmö | Skåne | 307,758 | 13 | Gävle | Gävleborg | 71,033 | ||
| 4 | Uppsala | Uppsala | 202,625 | 14 | Borås | Västra Götaland | 66,273 | ||
| 5 | Linköping | Östergötland | 148,521 | 15 | Eskilstuna | Södermanland | 64,679 | ||
| 6 | Västerås | Västmanland | 140,499 | 16 | Södertälje | Stockholm | 64,619 | ||
| 7 | Örebro | Örebro | 138,952 | 17 | Karlstad | Värmland | 61,685 | ||
| 8 | Norrköping | Östergötland | 132,124 | 18 | Täby | Stockholm | 61,272 | ||
| 9 | Helsingborg | Skåne | 132,011 | 19 | Växjö | Kronoberg | 60,887 | ||
| 10 | Jönköping | Jönköping | 129,478 | 20 | Halmstad | Halland | 58,577 | ||
The official language of Sweden is Swedish,[5][6] a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Norwegians have little difficulty understanding Swedish, and Danes can also understand it, with slightly more difficulty than the Norwegians. The same goes for standard Swedish speakers, who find it far easier to understand Norwegian than Danish. The dialects spoken in Scania, the southernmost part of the country, are influenced by Danish because the region traditionally was a part of Denmark and is nowadays situated closely to it. Sweden Finns are Sweden's largest linguistic minority, comprising about 5% of Sweden's population,[151] and Finnish is recognized as a minority language.[6]
Along with Finnish, four other minority languages are also recognized: Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish. Swedish became Sweden's official language on 1 July 2009, when a new language law was implemented.[6] The issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language has been raised in the past, and the Riksdag voted on the matter in 2005, but the proposal narrowly failed.[152]
In varying degrees, depending largely on frequency of interaction with English, a majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, understand and speak English owing to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films, and the relative similarity of the two languages which makes learning English easier. In a 2005 survey by Eurobarometer, 89% of Swedes reported the ability to speak English.[153]
English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as early as 1849, and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s.[154] Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject between first grade and ninth grade, with all students continuing in secondary school studying English for at least another year. Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. These include (but are not limited to) German, French and Spanish. Some Danish and Norwegian is at times also taught as part of Swedish courses for native speakers.
Before the 11th century, Swedes adhered to Norse paganism, worshiping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianization in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities into the late 19th century. After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s, a change led by Martin Luther's Swedish associate Olaus Petri, the authority of the Roman Catholic Church was abolished. The church and state were separated, allowing Lutheranism to prevail. This process was completed by the Uppsala Synod of 1593. Lutheranism became Sweden's official religion. During the era following the Reformation, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen, the Moravian Church and Walloons or French Huguenots from Belgium, played a significant role in trade and industry, and were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they converted to Lutheranism by the work of Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.
With religious liberalizations in the late 18th century believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Roman Catholicism, were allowed to openly live and work in the country. However, until 1860 it remained illegal for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and, towards the end of the century, secularism, leading many to distance themselves from Church rituals. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another Christian denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was formally established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. In 2000 the Church of Sweden was separated from the state and Sweden ceased to have any official church.
| Year | Population | Church members | Percentage |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1972 | 8,146,000 | 7,754,784 | 95.2% |
| 1980 | 8,278,000 | 7,690,636 | 92.9% |
| 1990 | 8,573,000 | 7,630,350 | 89.0% |
| 2000 | 8,880,000 | 7,360,825 | 82.9% |
| 2005 | 9,048,000 | 6,967,498 | 77.0% |
| 2006 | 9,119,000 | 6,893,901 | 75.6% |
| 2007 | 9,179,000 | 6,820,161 | 74.3% |
| 2008 | 9,262,000 | 6,751,952 | 72.9% |
| 2009 | 9,340,682 | 6,664,064 | 71.3%[157][158] |
| 2010 | 9,415,570 | 6,589,769 | 70.0% |
| 2011 | 9,482,855 | 6,519,889 | 68.8%[159] |
| 2012 | 9,555,893 | 6,446,729 | 67.5%[160] |
At the end of 2012, 67.5% of Swedes belonged to the Church of Sweden (Lutheran); this number has been decreasing by about one percentage point a year for the last two decades.[160][161][162] Approximately 2% of the church's members regularly attend Sunday services.[163] The reason for the large number of inactive members is partly that, until 1996, children automatically became members at birth if at least one of the parents was a member. Since 1996, only children that are christened become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and immigration has meant that there are now some 92,000 Roman Catholics and 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians living in Sweden.[164]
The first Muslim congregation was established in 1949 when a small contingent of Tatars migrated from Finland, but Islam's presence in Sweden remained marginal until the 1960s when Sweden started to receive migrants from the Balkans and Turkey. Further immigration from North Africa and the Middle East have brought the estimated Muslim population to 500,000. However, only about 110,000 are members of a congregation and of these approximately 25,000 actively practise Islam in the sense that they pray five times a day and attend Friday prayer.[165][166][167]
According to a study by California-based Pitzer college, between 46% and 85% of Swedes do not believe in God.[168] In a Eurostat survey, 23% of Swedish citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 53% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 23% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". Sociology professor Phil Zuckerman claims that Swedes, despite a lack of belief in God, commonly resent the term atheist, preferring to call themselves Christians while being content with remaining in the Church of Sweden.[169] Other research has shown that religion in Sweden continues to play a role in cultural identity.[170] This is evidenced by the fact that around 70 per cent of adults continue to remain members of the Lutheran Church[171] despite having to pay a church tax; moreover, rates of baptism remain high and church weddings are increasing in Sweden.[170]
Healthcare in Sweden is similar in quality to other developed nations. Sweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to low infant mortality. It also ranks high in life expectancy and in safe drinking water. A person seeking care first contacts a clinic for a doctor's appointment, and may then be referred to a specialist by the clinic physician, who may in turn recommend either in-patient or out-patient treatment, or an elective care option. The health care is governed by the 21 landsting of Sweden and is mainly funded by taxes, with nominal fees for patients.
Children aged 1–5 years old are guaranteed a place in a public kindergarten (Swedish: förskola or, colloquially, dagis). Between the ages of 6 and 16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Swedish 15-year-old pupils score close to the OECD average.[172] After completing the 9th grade, about 90% of the students continue with a three-year upper secondary school (gymnasium), which can lead to both a job qualification or entrance eligibility to university. The school system is largely financed by taxes.
The Swedish government treats public and independent schools equally[173] by introducing education vouchers in 1992 as one of the first countries in the world after The Netherlands. Anyone can establish a for-profit school and the municipality must pay new schools the same amount as municipal schools get. School lunch is free for all students in Sweden, and providing breakfast is also encouraged.[174]
There are a number of different universities and colleges in Sweden, the oldest and largest of which are situated in Uppsala, Lund, Gothenburg and Stockholm. In 2000, 32% of Swedish people held a tertiary degree, making the country 5th in the OECD in that category.[175] Along with several other European countries, the government also subsidises tuition of international students pursuing a degree at Swedish institutions, although a recent bill passed in the Riksdag will limit this subsidy to students from EEA countries and Switzerland.[176]
Immigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the history of Sweden, and in recent centuries the country has been transformed from a nation of net emigration, ending after World War I, to a nation of net immigration, from World War II onwards. The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding ethnicity, economic benefits, jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behaviour.[177]
There are no exact numbers on the ethnic background of migrants and their descendants in Sweden because the Swedish government does not base any statistics on ethnicity. This is, however, not to be confused with the migrants' national backgrounds, which are recorded.
In 1998, there were 1,746,921 inhabitants of a foreign background (foreign-born and children of international migrants), comprising around 20% of the Swedish population. Around 1,216,659, or 70%, came from Scandinavia and the rest of Europe and 530,262, or 30%, came from the rest of the world.[178]
Around 27% or 2,000,000 inhabitants of Sweden had a full or partial foreign background in 2011.[179][180][181] Of these inhabitants; 1,427,296 persons living in Sweden were born abroad. In addition, 430,253 persons were born in Sweden to two parents born abroad and another 666,723 persons had one parent born abroad (with the other parent born in Sweden). Thus, with the total population in 2011 being 9,482,855, roughly 15% of the population was born abroad, 4.5% of the population was born in Sweden to two parents born abroad, and another 7% was born in Sweden to one parent born abroad. Around 26.5% of the Swedish population is, at least partly, of foreign descent.[179]
According to Eurostat, in 2010, there were 1.33 million foreign-born residents in Sweden, corresponding to 14.3% of the total population. Of these, 859 000 (9.2%) were born outside the EU and 477 000 (5.1%) were born in another EU Member State.[182][183]
In 2009, immigration reached its highest level since records began, with 102,280 people emigrating to Sweden.[184] Immigrants in Sweden are mostly concentrated in the urban areas of Svealand and Götaland.[183] Since the early 1970s, immigration to Sweden has been mostly due to refugee migration and family reunification from countries in the Middle East and Latin America.[185] In 2013, Sweden granted 29,000 people asylum;[186] an increase of 67% compared to 2012.[186]
The ten largest groups of foreign-born persons in the Swedish civil registry in 2012 were from:[187]
Sweden has many authors of worldwide recognition including August Strindberg, Astrid Lindgren, and Nobel Prize winners Selma Lagerlöf and Harry Martinson. In total seven Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded to Swedes. The nation's most well-known artists are painters such as Carl Larsson and Anders Zorn, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles.
Swedish 20th-century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmaker Ingmar Bergman and actors Greta Garbo and Ingrid Bergman became internationally noted people within cinema. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström have received international recognition.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Sweden was seen as an international leader in what is now referred to as the "sexual revolution", with gender equality having particularly been promoted.[188] At the present time, the number of single people is one of the highest in the world. The early Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow) (1967) reflected a liberal view of sexuality, including scenes of love making that caught international attention, and introduced the concept of the "Swedish sin" that had been introduced earlier in the US with Ingmar Bergman's Summer with Monika.
The image of "hot love and cold people" emerged. Sexual liberalism was seen as part of modernization process that by breaking down traditional borders would lead to the emancipation of natural forces and desires.[189]
Sweden has also become very liberal towards homosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such as Show Me Love, which is about two young lesbians in the small Swedish town of Åmål. Since 1 May 2009, Sweden repealed its "registered partnership" laws and fully replaced them with gender-neutral marriage,[190] Sweden also offers domestic partnerships for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. Cohabitation (sammanboende) by couples of all ages, including teenagers as well as elderly couples, is widespread. Recently, Sweden is experiencing a baby boom.[191]
Sweden has a rich musical tradition, ranging from mediaeval folk ballads to hip hop music. The music of the pre-Christian Norse has been lost to history, although historical re-creations have been attempted based on instruments found in Viking sites. The instruments used were the lur (a sort of trumpet), simple string instruments, wooden flutes and drums. It is possible that the Viking musical legacy lives on in some of the old Swedish folk music. Sweden has a significant folk-music scene, both in the traditional style as well as more modern interpretations which often mix in elements of rock and jazz. Väsen is more of a traditionalist group, using a unique, traditional Swedish instrument called the nyckelharpa while Garmarna, Nordman and Hedningarna have more modern elements. There is also Sami music, called the joik, which is actually a type of chant which is part of the traditional Saami animistic spirituality but has gained recognition in the international world of folk music. Sweden's most classic and notable composers includes Carl Michael Bellman and Franz Berwald.
Sweden also has a prominent choral music tradition, deriving in part from the cultural importance of Swedish folk songs. In fact, out of a population of 9.5 million, it is estimated that five to six hundred thousand people sing in choirs.[192]
In 2007, with over 800 million dollars in revenue, Sweden was the third-largest music exporter in the world and surpassed only by the US and the UK.[193][194][better source needed] According to one source 2013, Sweden produces the most chart hits per capita in the world, followed by the UK and the USA.[195] ABBA was one of the first internationally well-known popular music bands from Sweden, and still ranks among the most prominent bands in the world, with about 370 million records sold. With ABBA, Sweden entered into a new era, in which Swedish pop music gained international prominence.
There have been many other internationally successful bands since, such as Roxette, Ace of Base, Europe, A-teens, The Cardigans, Robyn, The Hives and Soundtrack of Our Lives, to name some of the biggest, and recently there has been a surge of Swedish Indie pop bands such as The Knife, Loney, Dear, The Tough Alliance, Shout Out Louds, The Radio Dept. and Dungen, a group which incorporates many elements of Swedish traditional folk music in their sound. One of the most popular rock bands domestically is Kent.
Sweden has also become known for a large number of heavy metal bands. Swedish musicians are often credited for creating melodic death metal (aka MDM, melodeath). Some of the most popular metal bands (not necessarily melodeath) are In Flames, Amon Amarth, HammerFall, Pain of Salvation, Dark Tranquillity, Opeth, Arch Enemy and Meshuggah. The renowned neo-classical power metal guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen is also from Sweden.
Starting in the 1990s, Denniz Pop's Cheiron Studios became an international hit factory, with his disciple Max Martin responsible for Britney Spears' breakthrough songs and for shaping the whole boy-band boom at the turn of the millennium with global hits for groups like the Backstreet Boys and 'N Sync. In the mid-2000s, Martin came back with a more rock-tinged sound and produced major hits with artists such as Kelly Clarkson, Pink and Katy Perry. Another producer worth mentioning is RedOne, a Moroccan-Swede who is the creator of a slew of hits for Lady Gaga.
In the Eurovision Song Contest 2012, Swedish songwriters and producers featured in 10 out of the 42 songs that qualified for the Contest. In The Eurovision Song Contest 2012 the Swedish artist Loreen took a landslide victory with the song Euphoria.
Sweden has a rather lively jazz scene. During the last sixty years or so it has attained a remarkably high artistic standard, stimulated by domestic as well as external influences and experiences. The Centre for Swedish Folk Music and Jazz Research has published an overview of jazz in Sweden by Lars Westin.[196]
The most recent development in the Swedish music industry has been the rise of the house/techno genre, in which artists such as Swedish House Mafia, Avicii, Eric Prydz, a.k.a. Pryda, and Basshunter have gained worldknown reputation.
Before the 13th century almost all buildings were made of timber, but a shift began towards stone. Early Swedish stone buildings are the Romanesque churches on the country side. As so happens, many of them were built in Scania and are in effect Danish churches. This would include the magnificent Lund Cathedral from the 11th century and the somewhat younger church in Dalby, but also many early Gothic churches built through influences of the Hanseatic League, such as in Ystad, Malmö and Helsingborg.
Cathedrals in other parts of Sweden were also built as seats of Sweden's bishops. The Skara Cathedral is of bricks from the 14th century, and the Uppsala Cathedral in the 15th. In 1230 the foundations of the Linköping Cathedral were made, the material was there limestone, but the building took some 250 years to finish.
Among older structures are also some significant fortresses and other historical buildings such as at Borgholm Castle, Halltorps Manor and Eketorp fortress on the island Öland, the Nyköping fortress and the Visby ring wall.
Around 1520 Sweden was out of the Middle Ages and united under King Gustav Vasa, who immediately initiated grand mansions, castles and fortresses to be built. Some of the more magnificent include the Kalmar fortress, the Gripsholm Castle and the one at Vadstena.
In the next two centuries, Sweden was designated by Baroque architecture and later the rococo. Notable projects from that time include the city Karlskrona, which has now also been declared a World Heritage Site and the Drottningholm Palace.
1930 was the year of the great Stockholm exhibition, which marked the breakthrough of Functionalism, or "funkis" as it became known. The style came to dominate in the following decades. Some notable projects of this kind were the Million Programme, offering affordable living in large apartment complexes.
Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and nearly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (liberal), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (liberal conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (liberal). The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others, The Local (liberal).
The public broadcasting companies held a monopoly on radio and television for a long time in Sweden. Licence funded radio broadcasts started in 1925. A second radio network was started in 1954 and a third opened 1962 in response to pirate radio stations. Non-profit community radio was allowed in 1979 and in 1993 commercial local radio started.
The licence funded television service was officially launched in 1956. A second channel, TV2, was launched in 1969. These two channels (operated by Sveriges Television since the late 1970s) held a monopoly until the 1980s when cable and satellite television became available. The first Swedish language satellite service was TV3 which started broadcasting from London in 1987. It was followed by Kanal 5 in 1989 (then known as Nordic Channel) and TV4 in 1990.
In 1991 the government announced it would begin taking applications from private television companies wishing to broadcast on the terrestrial network. TV4, which had previously been broadcasting via satellite, was granted a permit and began its terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast television content from within the country.
Around half the population are connected to cable television. Digital terrestrial television in Sweden started in 1999 and the last analogue terrestrial broadcasts were terminated in 2007.
The first literary text from Sweden is the Rök Runestone, carved during the Viking Age c. 800 AD. With the conversion of the land to Christianity around 1100 AD, Sweden entered the Middle Ages, during which monastic writers preferred to use Latin. Therefore there are only a few texts in the Old Swedish from that period. Swedish literature only flourished when the Swedish language was standardized in the 16th century, a standardization largely due to the full translation of the Bible into Swedish in 1541. This translation is the so-called Gustav Vasa Bible.
With improved education and the freedom brought by secularization, the 17th century saw several notable authors develop the Swedish language further. Some key figures include Georg Stiernhielm (17th century), who was the first to write classical poetry in Swedish; Johan Henric Kellgren (18th century), the first to write fluent Swedish prose; Carl Michael Bellman (late 18th century), the first writer of burlesque ballads; and August Strindberg (late 19th century), a socio-realistic writer and playwright who won worldwide fame. The early 20th century continued to produce notable authors, such as Selma Lagerlöf, (Nobel laureate 1909), Verner von Heidenstam (Nobel laureate 1916) and Pär Lagerkvist (Nobel laureate 1951).
In recent decades, a handful of Swedish writers have established themselves internationally, including the detective novelist Henning Mankell and the writer of spy fiction Jan Guillou. The Swedish writer to have made the most lasting impression on world literature is the children's book writer Astrid Lindgren, and her books about Pippi Longstocking, Emil, and others. In 2008, the second best-selling fiction author in the world was Stieg Larsson, whose Millennium series of crime novels is being published posthumously to critical acclaim.[197] Larsson drew heavily on the work of Lindgren by basing his central character, Lisbeth Salander, on Longstocking.[198]
Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton) on 30 April lighting bonfires; and Labour Day or Mayday on 1 May is dedicated to socialist demonstrations. The day of giver-of-light Saint Lucia, 13 December, is widely acknowledged in elaborate celebrations which betoken its Italian origin and commence the month-long Christmas season.
6 June is the National Day of Sweden and has since 2005 been a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kräftskivor (crayfish dinner parties). Martin of Tours Eve is celebrated in Scania in November with Mårten Gås parties, where roast goose and svartsoppa ('black soup', made of goose stock, fruit, spices, spirits and goose blood) are served. The Sami, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on 6 February and Scania celebrate their Scanian Flag day on the third Sunday in July.
Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Norway and Finland), was traditionally simple. Fish (particularly herring), meat, potatoes and dairy products played prominent roles.
Spices were sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish meatballs, traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam; pancakes, lutfisk, and Smörgåsbord, or lavish buffet. Akvavit is a popular alcoholic distilled beverage, and the drinking of snaps is of cultural importance. The traditional flat and dry crisp bread has developed into several contemporary variants. Regionally important foods are the surströmming (a fermented fish) in Northern Sweden and eel in Scania in Southern Sweden.
Swedish traditional dishes, some of which are many hundreds of years old, others perhaps a century or less, are still a very important part of Swedish everyday meals, in spite of the fact that modern-day Swedish cuisine adopts many international dishes.
In August, at the traditional feast known as crayfish party, kräftskiva, Swedes eat large amounts of boiled crayfish with boiled potato and dill.
Swedes have been fairly prominent in the film area through the years. A number of Swedish people have found success in Hollywood, including Ingrid Bergman, Greta Garbo and Max von Sydow. Amongst several directors who have made internationally successful films can be mentioned Ingmar Bergman, Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström.
Interest in fashion is big in Sweden and the country is headquartering famous brands like Hennes & Mauritz (operating as H&M), J. Lindeberg (operating as JL), Acne, Lindex, Odd Molly, Cheap Monday, Gant, WESC, Filippa K, and Nakkna within its borders. These companies, however, are composed largely of buyers who import fashionable goods from throughout Europe and America, continuing the trend of Swedish business toward multinational economic dependency like many of its neighbours.
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating in organized sporting activities. The two main spectator sports are football and ice hockey. Second to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners who are mostly women. Thereafter, golf, athletics, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and bandy are the most popular.
The Swedish ice hockey team Tre Kronor is regarded as one of the best in the world. The team has won the World Championships nine times, placing them third in the all-time medal count. Tre Kronor also won Olympic gold medals in 1994 and 2006. In 2006, Tre Kronor became the first national hockey team to win both the Olympic and world championships in the same year. The Swedish national football team has seen some success at the World Cup in the past, finishing second when they hosted the tournament in 1958, and third twice, in 1950 and 1994. Athletics has enjoyed a surge in popularity due to several successful athletes in recent years, such as Carolina Klüft and Stefan Holm.
Sweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in 1958. Other big sports events include the 1992 UEFA European Football Championship, 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup, UEFA Women's Euro 2013, and several championships of ice hockey, curling, athletics, skiing, bandy, figure skating and swimming.
Successful football players include Gunnar Nordahl, Gunnar Gren, Nils Liedholm, Henrik Larsson, Fredrik Ljungberg and Zlatan Ibrahimović. Successful tennis players include former world number 1 players Björn Borg, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg. Other famous Swedish athletes include the heavyweight boxing champion and International Boxing Hall of Famer Ingemar Johansson; World Golf Hall of Famer Annika Sörenstam, and multiple World Championships and Olympics medalist in table tennis Jan-Ove Waldner.
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| Hur och när det svenska riket uppstod vet vi inte. Först under 1100-talet börjar skriftliga dokument produceras i Sverige i någon större omfattning [...] | How and when the Swedish kingdom appeared is not known. It is not until the 12th century that written document begin to be produced in Sweden in any larger extent [...] |
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| リンク元 | 「Swedish」 |