関: Penicillium notatum

WordNet

genus of fungi commonly growing as green or blue molds on decaying food; used in making cheese and as a source of penicillin (同)genus Penicillium

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/02/05 12:02:56」(JST)

wiki en

Penicillium chrysogenum is a species of fungus in the family Trichocomaceae. It is common in temperate and subtropical regions and can be found on salted food products,^[1] but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings.^[2] It was previously known as Penicillium notatum.^[3] It has rarely been reported as a cause of human disease.^[how?] It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly penicillin. Other secondary metabolites of P. chrysogenum include roquefortine C, meleagrin, chrysogine, xanthocillins, secalonic acids, sorrentanone, sorbicillin, and PR-toxin.^[4]

Like the many other species of the genus Penicillium, P. chrysogenum usually reproduces by forming dry chains of spores (or conidia) from brush-shaped conidiophores. The conidia are typically carried by air currents to new colonisation sites. In P. chrysogenum the conidia are blue to blue-green, and the mold sometimes exudes a yellow pigment. However, P. chrysogenum cannot be identified based on colour alone. Observations of morphology and microscopic features are needed to confirm its identity and DNA sequencing is essential to distinguish it from closely related species such as Penicillium rubens. The sexual stage of P. chrysogenum was discovered in 2013 by mating cultures in the dark on oatmeal agar supplemented with biotin, after the mating types (MAT1-1 or MAT1-2) of the strains had been determined using PCR amplification.^[5]

The airborne asexual spores of P. chrysogenum are important human allergens. Vacuolar and alkaline serine proteases have been implicated as the major allergenic proteins.^[6]

Penicillium chrysogenum has been used industrially to produce penicillin and xanthocillin X, to treat pulp mill waste, and to produce the enzymes polyamine oxidase, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and glucose oxidase.^[4]^[7]

Science and history

The discovery of penicillin ushered in a new age of antibiotics derived from microorganisms. Penicillin is an antibiotic isolated from growing Penicillium mold in a fermenter. The mold is grown in a liquid culture containing sugar and other nutrients including a source of nitrogen. As the mold grows, the sugar is used up and starts to make penicillin only after using up most of the nutrients for growth.

Penicillin was discovered in 1928 when Alexander Fleming's lab assistant accidentally left a window open overnight and mold spores covered his Staphylococcus bacterial specimens in a Petri dish.^[8]^[9] At first, Fleming was very irritated at the contamination, but, as he was about to throw the specimens away, he noticed something interesting. He looked under the microscope at the bacteria surrounding the blue-green mold and noticed that many were dead or dying. This later turned out to have been due to the mold's prevention of the bacteria from making new cell walls and reproducing. He identified the mold as Penicillium notatum, which releases the antibiotic penicillin G into the medium (his identification has been subsequently shown to be incorrect: the fungal species was actually the related Penicillium rubens).^[10] After this, he did some testing on humans and animals and discovered that not only did it kill bacteria but it was suitable for use as a medication in humans and animals. However, the discovery did not attract much attention until the 1940s, when Howard Florey, Norman Heatley, and Ernst Chain developed methods for mass production and application in humans, incited by the urgent war-time need for antibacterial agents. The work of Andrew J. Moyer was important in these early developments.

At this point, though the drug had shown success in treating numerous bacterial diseases, it was still so difficult to produce and so dilute that it was not feasible to produce quantities large enough for mass production, and so an effort was begun to find a strain of Penicillium with a higher rate of production of penicillin. Army pilots sent back soil from around the world to be tested for the right kind of mold.^{[citation needed]} Even the people of Peoria, Illinois were told to bring in any molds that they found around their homes.^{[citation needed]} It has also been said^[where?] that the scientists working on this project kept an eye out for similar-looking molds while grocery shopping or when they were cleaning around the kitchen especially their refrigerators.^{[citation needed]}

It was by these means that Penicillium chrysogenum was discovered, on a cantaloupe from a grocery store in Peoria, Illinois.^[11] The fungus isolated from this cantaloupe produced several hundred times as much penicillin as Fleming's original cultures. Subcultures of this fungus were then irradiated with X-rays and UV rays in an attempt to cause a mutation in the fungus that would lead to an increase in penicillin yield. The effort was successful, and a mutant strain that yielded more than a thousand times the penicillin of Fleming's original culture was produced and cultured.^{[citation needed]} This discovery, in combination with vastly improved methods of culturing the fungus based on the principle of aerating the culture medium, resulted in the ability to mass-produce penicillin in quantities great enough for distribution and mass use in the United States Army, and later within the British armed service and hospitals, in WWII.

Genetics and evolution

The ability to produce penicillin appears to have evolved over thousands or millions of years, and is shared with several other related fungi. It is believed to confer a selective advantage during competition with bacteria for food sources.^{[citation needed]} Some bacteria have consequently developed the counter-ability to survive penicillin exposure by producing penicillinases, enzymes that degrade penicillin.^{[citation needed]} Penicillinase production is one mechanism by which bacteria can become penicillin resistant.

The principal genes responsible for producing penicillin, pcbAB, pcbC and penDE are closely linked, forming a cluster on chromosome I.^[12] Some high-producing Penicillium chrysogenum strains used for the industrial production of penicillin contain multiple tandem copies of the penicillin gene cluster.^[13]

References

^ Samson RA, Houbraken J, Thrane U, Frisvad JC & Andersen B. (2010). Food and Indoor Fungi. CBS-KNAW- Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, the Netherlands. pp. 1-398.
^ Andersen B, Frisvad JC, Søndergaard I, Rasmussen IS & Larsen LS. 2011. Associations between fungal species and water damaged building materials. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. In Press
^ Samson RA, Hadlok R, Stolk AC (1977). "A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 43 (2): 169–175. doi:10.1007/BF00395671. PMID 413477.
^ ^a ^b de Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras F (2000), Atlas of Clinical Fungi - 2nd Edition, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (Utrecht)
^ Böhm J, Hoff B, O’Gorman CM, Wolfers S, Klix V, Binger B, Zadra I, Kürnsteiner H, Pöggeler S, Dyer PS, Kückde U (2013), "Sexual reproduction and mating-type–mediated strain development in the penicillin-producing fungus Penicillium chrysogenum", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., PNAS Early Edition, doi:10.1073/pnas.1217943110, PMC 3557024, PMID 23307807
^ Shen HD, Chou H, Tam MF, Chang CY, Lai HY, Wang SR (2003). "Molecular and immunological characterization of Pen ch 18, the vacuolar serine protease major allergen of Penicillium chrysogenum". Allergy 58 (10): 993–1002. doi:10.1034/j.1398-9995.2003.00107.x. PMID 14510716.
^ Raper KB, Thom C. (1949). A manual of the Penicillia. Williams & Wilkins Company (Baltimore).
^ Diggins F (1999). "The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature". Br J Biomed Sci 56 (2): 83–93. PMID 10695047.
^ Ligon B (2004). "Penicillin: its discovery and early development". Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 15 (1): 52–7. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.001. PMID 15175995.
^ Houbraken, J; Frisvad, JC; Samson, RA (2011). "Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens". IMA Fungus 2 (1): 87–95. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12. PMC 3317369. PMID 22679592.
^ http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/timeline/penicillin.htm
^ Martín JF, Gutiérrez S, Fernández FJ, et al. (1994). "Expression of genes and processing of enzymes for the biosynthesis of penicillins and cephalosporins". Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 65 (3): 227–243. doi:10.1007/BF00871951. PMID 7847890.
^ Fierro F, Barredo JL, Díez B, Gutierrez S, Fernández FJ, Martín JF (1995). "The penicillin gene cluster is amplified in tandem repeats linked by conserved hexanucleotide sequences". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (13): 6200–6204. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.13.6200. PMC 41670. PMID 7597101.

External links

Penicillium chrysogenum in Index Fungorum
Penicillium chrysogenum, Tom Volk's fungus of the month

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. ペニシリウム（タラロミセス）・マルネッフェイ感染症の疫学および臨床症状 epidemiology and clinical manifestations of penicillium talaromyces marneffei infection
2. ペニシリウム（タラロミセス）・マルネッフェイ感染症の診断および治療 diagnosis and treatment of penicillium talaromyces marneffei infection
3. HIV感染患者における発熱および発疹 fever and rash in hiv infected patients
4. 東南アジアへの旅行によって感染する可能性のある疾患 diseases potentially acquired by travel to southeast asia
5. 帰国者の皮膚病変 skin lesions in the returning traveler

English Journal

Biochemical characterization and gene expression of two endo-arabinanases from Penicillium chrysogenum 31B.

Sakamoto T, Inui M, Yasui K, Tokuda S, Akiyoshi M, Kobori Y, Nakaniwa T, Tada T.SourceDivision of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan, sakamoto@biochem.osakafu-u.ac.jp.
Applied microbiology and biotechnology.Appl Microbiol Biotechnol.2012 Feb;93(3):1087-96. Epub 2011 Jul 12.
We previously described five arabinanolytic enzymes secreted by Penicillium chrysogenum 31B into the culture medium. Here, we describe a sixth such enzyme, termed AbnS1. Analysis of the reaction products of debranched arabinan revealed that AbnS1 cleaved the substrate in an endo manner. The optimum
PMID 21748379

Motifs in the C-terminal region of the Penicillium chrysogenum ACV synthetase are essential for valine epimerization and processivity of tripeptide formation.

Wu X, García-Estrada C, Vaca I, Martín JF.SourceInstituto de Biotecnología (INBIOTEC), Parque Científico de León, Av. Real, 1, 24006 León, Spain.
Biochimie.Biochimie.2012 Feb;94(2):354-64. Epub 2011 Aug 27.
The first step in the penicillin biosynthetic pathway is the non-ribosomal condensation of l-α-aminoadipic acid, l-cysteine and l-valine into the tripeptide δ-(l-α-aminoadipyl)-l-cysteinyl-d-valine (ACV). This reaction is catalysed by the multienzyme ACV synthetase (ACVS), which is encoded in the
PMID 21889568

Penicillium chrysogenum var. halophenolicum, a new halotolerant strain with potential in the remediation of aromatic compounds in high salt environments.

Leitão AL, García-Estrada C, Ullán RV, Guedes SF, Martín-Jiménez P, Mendes B, Martín JF.SourceGrupo de Ecologia da Hidrosfera, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campus de Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal.
Microbiological research.Microbiol Res.2012 Jan 20;167(2):79-89. Epub 2011 Apr 27.
A halotolerant phenylacetate-degrading fungus Penicillium CLONA2, previously isolated from a salt mine at Algarve (Portugal), was identified as a variant of P. chrysogenum using the ITS-5,8S rDNA and the D1/D2 domain of 28S rDNA sequences. The metabolic features and genetic characteristics suggest t
PMID 21524896

Japanese Journal

Bioethanol production from ball milled bagasse using an on-site produced fungal enzyme cocktail and xylose-fermenting Pichia stipitis(ENZYMOLOGY, PROTEIN ENGINEERING, AND ENZYME TECHNOLOGY)

Buaban Benchaporn,Inoue Hiroyuki,Yano Shinichi,Tanapongpipat Sutipa,Ruanglek Vasimon,Champreda Verawat,Pichyangkura Rath,Rengpipat Sirirat,Eurwilaichitr Lily
Journal of bioscience and bioengineering 110(1), 18-25, 2010-07
… The pretreated cellulosic residues were hydrolyzed by a crude enzyme preparation from Penicillium chrysogenum BCC4504 containing cellulase activity combined with Aspergillus flavus BCC7179 preparation containing complementary β-glucosidase activity. …
NAID 110007681438

Comparison of dry- and wet-based fine bead homogenizations to extract DNA from fungal spores(METHODS)

Yamamoto Naomichi,Matsuzaka Yasunari,Kimura Minoru,Matsuki Hideaki,Yanagisawa Yukio
Journal of bioscience and bioengineering 107(4), 464-470, 2009-04
… The present study explored DNA extraction kinetics from fungal spores, i.e., Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum and Cladosporium sphaerospermum, by fine bead mill homogenization. …
NAID 110007225793

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「ペニシリウム・クリソゲナム」
関連記事	「Penicillium」

「ペニシリウム・クリソゲナム」

Penicillium chrysogenum
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Fungi
Division:	Ascomycota
Class:	Eurotiomycetes
Order:	Eurotiales
Family:	Trichocomaceae
Genus:	Penicillium
Species:	P. chrysogenum
Binomial name
	Penicillium chrysogenum; Thom (1910)

　　[★]

ラ: Penicillium chrysogenum
関: アオカビ

「Penicillium」

　　[★]

ペニシリウム属

[1] Samson RA, Houbraken J, Thrane U, Frisvad JC & Andersen B. (2010). Food and Indoor Fungi. CBS-KNAW- Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, the Netherlands. pp. 1-398.

[2] Andersen B, Frisvad JC, Søndergaard I, Rasmussen IS & Larsen LS. 2011. Associations between fungal species and water damaged building materials. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. In Press

[Samson1977-3] Samson RA, Hadlok R, Stolk AC (1977). "A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 43 (2): 169–175. doi:10.1007/BF00395671. PMID 413477.

[Hoog2000-4] Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras F (2000), Atlas of Clinical Fungi - 2nd Edition, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (Utrecht)

[Bohm2013-5] Böhm J, Hoff B, O’Gorman CM, Wolfers S, Klix V, Binger B, Zadra I, Kürnsteiner H, Pöggeler S, Dyer PS, Kückde U (2013), "Sexual reproduction and mating-type–mediated strain development in the penicillin-producing fungus Penicillium chrysogenum", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., PNAS Early Edition, doi:10.1073/pnas.1217943110, PMC 3557024, PMID 23307807

[Shen_2003-6] Shen HD, Chou H, Tam MF, Chang CY, Lai HY, Wang SR (2003). "Molecular and immunological characterization of Pen ch 18, the vacuolar serine protease major allergen of Penicillium chrysogenum". Allergy 58 (10): 993–1002. doi:10.1034/j.1398-9995.2003.00107.x. PMID 14510716.

[Raper1949-7] Raper KB, Thom C. (1949). A manual of the Penicillia. Williams & Wilkins Company (Baltimore).

[Diggins_1999-8] Diggins F (1999). "The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature". Br J Biomed Sci 56 (2): 83–93. PMID 10695047.

[Ligon_2004-9] Ligon B (2004). "Penicillin: its discovery and early development". Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 15 (1): 52–7. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.001. PMID 15175995.

[Houbraken2011-10] Houbraken, J; Frisvad, JC; Samson, RA (2011). "Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens". IMA Fungus 2 (1): 87–95. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12. PMC 3317369. PMID 22679592.

[11] ttp://www.ars.usda.gov/is/timeline/penicillin.htm

[Mart.C3.ADn_1994-12] Martín JF, Gutiérrez S, Fernández FJ, et al. (1994). "Expression of genes and processing of enzymes for the biosynthesis of penicillins and cephalosporins". Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 65 (3): 227–243. doi:10.1007/BF00871951. PMID 7847890.

[Fierro_1995-13] Fierro F, Barredo JL, Díez B, Gutierrez S, Fernández FJ, Martín JF (1995). "The penicillin gene cluster is amplified in tandem repeats linked by conserved hexanucleotide sequences". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (13): 6200–6204. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.13.6200. PMC 41670. PMID 7597101.

匿名

検索

案内

案内

Penicillium chrysogenum