bear
出典: meddic
- n.
- クマ
- vt.
- 運ぶ、持って/連れて行く
- (重さ・物などを)支える。(義務・責任などを)負う
- (検査・比較など)に耐える
- (利子を)生む。(花を)つける
- (子を)もうける
- An infant born to an alcoholic mother had microcephaly and cardiac abnormalities and died despite resuscitative efforts.
- vi.
- 持ちこたえる。耐える
- 圧迫する(on, against)。(支持物に)もたれかかる(on)
- 効き目がある(on)。関係/影響がある(on)
- 押し進む。(ある方向を)とる。向く、曲がる
WordNet [license wordnet]
「move while holding up or supporting; "Bear gifts"; "bear a heavy load"; "bear news"; "bearing orders"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「massive plantigrade carnivorous or omnivorous mammals with long shaggy coats and strong claws」WordNet [license wordnet]
「an investor with a pessimistic market outlook; an investor who expects prices to fall and so sells now in order to buy later at a lower price」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「〈C〉『クマ』 / 〈C〉乱暴者 / 〈C〉(株式で)売り方 / 《the B-》クマ座」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「《しばしば受動態で》〈子〉'を'『産む』 / 〈花〉'を'『つける』,〈実〉'を'『結ぶ』;〈利子など〉'を'生む / 〈重さ〉'を'『支える』,‘に'耐える;〈物〉'を'載せている / 《通例否定構文で》〈人が〉…'を'『がまんする』,こらえる / 《通例否定構文で》〈物事が〉…‘に'ふさわしい,‘の'価値がある / 〈義務・責任など〉'を'負う,負担する;〈罰など〉'を'受ける,こうむる / 《文》…'を'『運ぶ』,持って行く,連れて行く / 〈情報・うわさなど〉'を'伝える,広める / 〈力など〉'を'与える,提供する / 〈武器・紋章など〉'を'身につけている,帯びている / 〈ある性質・特徴〉'を'示す,持っている / 〈ある感情〉…'を'心にいだく,持つ / 《副詞[句]を伴って》…'を'押す,突く / 《副詞[句]を伴って》(…の方に)向く,進む《+『toward』+『名』》 / 《副詞[句]を伴って》(…の)方向(位置)にある / 子を産む;実を結ぶ / …に向かって努力する / …にぐっと押し寄せる」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have rightfully; of rights, titles, and offices; "She bears the title of Duchess"; "He held the governorship for almost a decade"」- 同
- hold
WordNet [license wordnet]
「take on as one''s own the expenses or debts of another person; "I''ll accept the charges"; "She agreed to bear the responsibility"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「bring forth, "The apple tree bore delicious apples this year"; "The unidentified plant bore gorgeous flowers"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have; "bear a resemblance"; "bear a signature"」
Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2013/04/11 15:23:56」(JST)
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[Wiki en表示]Bears Temporal range: 38–0Ma PreЄ
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Brown bear, Ursus arctos in Norway | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Suborder: | Caniformia |
Family: | Ursidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 |
Genera | |
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Bears are mammals of the family Ursidae. Bears are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans, with the pinnipeds being their closest living relatives. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the continents of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia.
Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails. While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, the remaining six species are omnivorous, with varied diets.
With the exceptions of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically solitary animals. They are generally diurnal, but may be active during the night (nocturnal) or twilight (crepuscular), particularly around humans. Bears are aided by an excellent sense of smell, and despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they can run quickly and are adept climbers and swimmers. In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of fermented fruits, which affects their behaviour.[1] Bears use shelters, such as caves and burrows, as their dens; most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of sleep similar to hibernation.
Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur. To this day, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, the bears' existence has been pressured through the encroachment on their habitats and the illegal trade of bears and bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species, such as the brown bear, are at risk of extirpation in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.
Contents
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Etymology
The English word "bear" comes from Old English bera and belongs to a family of names for the bear in Germanic languages that originate from an adjective meaning "brown".[2] In Scandinavia, the word for bear is björn (or bjørn), and is a relatively common given name for males. The use of this name is ancient and has been found mentioned in several runestone inscriptions.[3]
The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European name of the bear is *h₂ŕ̥tḱos, whence Sanskrit r̥kṣa, Avestan arša, Greek ἄρκτος (arktos), Latin ursus, Welsh arth (whence perhaps "Arthur"), Albanian ari, Armenian արջ (arj). Also compared is Hittite ḫartagga-, the name of a monster or predator.[2] In the binomial name of the brown bear, Ursus arctos, Linnaeus simply combined the Latin and Greek names.
The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word for bear, *h₂ŕ̥tḱos seems to have been subject to taboo deformation or replacement in some languages (as was the word for wolf, wlkwos), resulting in the use of numerous unrelated words with meanings like "brown one" (English bruin) and "honey-eater" (Slavic medved).[4] Thus, some Indo-European language groups do not share the same PIE root. The theory of the bear taboo is taught to almost all starting students of Indo-European and historical linguistics; the putative original PIE word for bear is itself descriptive, because a cognate word in Sanskrit is rakṣas, meaning "harm, injury".[5]
Evolutionary history
The family Ursidae is one of 9 families in the suborder Caniformia, or "doglike" carnivores, within the order Carnivora. Bears' closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids.[6]
The following synapomorphic (derived) traits set bears apart from related families:
- presence of an alisphenoid canal
- paroccipital processes that are large and not fused to the auditory bullae
- auditory bullae are not enlarged
- lacrimal bone is vestigial
- cheek teeth are bunodont and hence indicative of a broad, hypocarnivorous (not strictly meat-eating) diet (although hypercarnivorous (strictly meat-eating) taxa are known from the fossil record)[7]
- carnassials are flattened
Additionally, members of this family possess posteriorly oriented M2 postprotocrista molars, elongated m2 molars, and a reduction of the premolars.
Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies: Ailuropodinae (monotypic with the giant panda), Tremarctinae (monotypic with the spectacled bear), and Ursinae (containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending upon authority).
Fossil bears
The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including Parictis (late Eocene to early middle Miocene, 38–18 Mya) and the slightly younger Allocyon (early Oligocene, 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance, and diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene.[8] It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the Bering land bridge may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene.[9] European genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and also the much younger American Kolponomos (about 18 Mya), are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon.
The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the oldest-known member of the subfamily Hemicyoninae, which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30 Mya ago. The subfamily also includes the younger genera Phoberocyon (20–15 Mya), and Plithocyon (15–7 Mya).
A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya).
Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus around 20 Mya ago, likely via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya ago, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 5 Mya.[10]
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid Miocene (about 13 Mya).[10] They invaded South America (~1 Ma) following formation of the Isthmus of Panama.[11] Their earliest fossil representative is Plionarctos in North America (~ 10–2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the North American short-faced bears (genus Arctodus), the South American short-faced bears (Arctotherium), and the spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species (T. floridanus), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya ago coincident with major environmental changes, with the first members of the genus Ursus also appearing around this time.[10] The sloth bear is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya ago, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of Europe; apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's Asiatic black bear. It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the sun bear, the Asiatic black bear, and the American black bear); and the brown bears (which includes the polar bear). Modern brown bears evolved from U. minimus via Ursus etruscus, which itself is ancestral to both the extinct Pleistocene cave bear and today's brown and polar bears. Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene.[12]
The fossil record of bears is exceptionally good. Direct ancestor-descendent relationships between individual species are often fairly well established, with sufficient intermediate forms known to make the precise cut-off between an ancestral and its daughter species subjective.[13]
Other extinct bear genera include Agriarctos, Indarctos, and Agriotherium (sometimes placed within hemicyonids).
Taxonomic revisions of living bear species
The giant panda's taxonomy (subfamily Ailuropodinae) has long been debated. Its original classification by Armand David in 1869 was within the bear genus Ursus, but in 1870, it was reclassified by Alphonse Milne-Edwards to the raccoon family.[14] In recent studies, the majority of DNA analyses suggest the giant panda has a much closer relationship to other bears and should be considered a member of the family Ursidae.[15] Estimates of divergence dates place the giant panda as the most ancient offshoot among living taxa within Ursidae, having split from other bears 17.9 to 22.1 Mya.[10] The red panda was included within Ursidae in the past. However, more recent research does not support such a conclusion, and instead places it in its own family Ailuridae, in superfamily Musteloidea along with Mustelidae, Procyonidae, and Mephitidae.[16][17][18] Multiple similarities between the two pandas, including the presence of false thumbs, are thus thought to represent an example of convergent evolution for feeding primarily on bamboo.
Unlike their neighbors elsewhere, the brown bears of Alaska's ABC Islands evidently are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears in the world. Researchers Gerald Shields and Sandra Talbot of the University of Alaska Fairbanks Institute of Arctic Biology studied the DNA of several samples of the species and found their DNA is different from that of other brown bears. The discovery has shown, while all other brown bears share a brown bear as their closest relative, those of Alaska's ABC Islands differ and share their closest relation with the polar bear.[19] Also, the very rare Tibetan blue bear is a type of brown bear. This animal has never been photographed.[citation needed]
Koalas are often referred to as bears due to their appearance; they are not bears, however, but are marsupials.
Classification
- Family Ursidae
- Subfamily Ailuropodinae
- † Ailurarctos
- † Ailurarctos lufengensis
- † Ailurarctos yuanmouenensis
- Ailuropoda (pandas)
- † Ailuropoda baconi
- † Ailuropoda fovealis
- Ailuropoda melanoleuca, giant panda
- Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca, giant panda
- Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis, Qinling panda
- † Ailuropoda microta
- † Ailuropoda wulingshanensis
- † Ailurarctos
- Subfamily Tremarctinae
- Tremarctos (Spectacled bears)
- Tremarctos ornatus, spectacled bear
- † Tremarctos floridanus
- † Arctodus
- † Arctodus simus
- † Arctodus pristinus
- † Arctotherium
- † Arctotherium angustidens
- † Arctotherium bonariense
- † Arctotherium brasilense
- † Arctotherium latidens
- † Arctotherium tarijense
- † Arctotherium vetustum
- † Arctotherium wingei
- † Plionarctos
- † Plionarctos edensis
- † Plionarctos harroldorum
- Tremarctos (Spectacled bears)
- Subfamily Ursinae
- † Agriotherium
- † Agriotherium inexpetans
- † Agriotherium schneideri
- † Agriotherium sivalensis
- Helarctos
- Helarctos malayanus, sun bear
- Helarctos malayanus malayanus
- Helarctos malayanus euryspilus, Borneo sun bear
- Helarctos malayanus, sun bear
- † Indarctos
- † Indarctos anthraciti
- † Indarctos arctoides
- † Indarctos atticus
- † Indarctos nevadensis
- † Indarctos oregonensis
- † Indarctos salmontanus
- † Indarctos vireti
- † Indarctos zdanskyi
- Melursus
- Melursus ursinus, sloth bear
- Melursus ursinus inornatus, Sri Lankan sloth bear
- Melursus ursinus ursinus, Indian sloth bear
- Melursus ursinus, sloth bear
- † Ursavus
- † Ursavus brevirhinus
- † Ursavus depereti
- † Ursavus elmensis
- † Ursavus pawniensis
- † Ursavus primaevus
- Ursus
- † Ursus abstrusus
- Ursus americanus, American black bear
- Ursus americanus altifrontalis, Olympic black bear
- Ursus americanus amblyceps, New Mexico black bear
- Ursus americanus americanus, Eastern black bear
- Ursus americanus californiensis, California black bear
- Ursus americanus carlottae, Haida Gwaii black bear or Queen Charlotte black bear
- Ursus americanus cinnamomum, cinnamon bear
- Ursus americanus emmonsii, Glacier bear
- Ursus americanus eremicus, Mexican black bear
- Ursus americanus floridanus, Florida black bear
- Ursus americanus hamiltoni, Newfoundland black bear
- Ursus americanus kermodei, Kermode bear or spirit bear
- Ursus americanus luteolus, Louisiana black bear
- Ursus americanus machetes, West Mexico black bear
- Ursus americanus perniger, Kenai black bear
- Ursus americanus pugnax, Dall black bear
- Ursus americanus vancouveri, Vancouver Island black bear
- Ursus arctos, brown bear
- Ursus arctos arctos, Eurasian brown bear
- Ursus arctos alascensis
- Ursus arctos beringianus, Kamchatka brown bear or Far Eastern brown bear
- † Ursus arctos californicus, California golden bear
- † Ursus arctos crowtheri, Atlas bear
- † Ursus arctos dalli
- Ursus arctos gobiensis, Gobi bear (very rare)
- Ursus arctos horribilis, grizzly bear
- Ursus arctos isabellinus, Himalayan brown bear or Himalayan red bear
- Ursus arctos lasiotus, Ussuri brown bear or black grizzly
- Ursus arctos middendorffi, Kodiak bear
- † Ursus arctos nelsoni, Mexican grizzly bear
- Ursus arctos piscator, Bergman's bear (extinct?)
- Ursus arctos pruinosus, Tibetan blue bear, Tibetan bear, or Himalayan blue bear
- Ursus arctos sitkensis
- Ursus arctos syriacus Syrian (brown) bear
- † Ursus deningeri
- † Ursus etruscus
- † Ursus inopinatus, MacFarlane's bear (cryptid; if an authentic species, extinct)
- † Ursus minimus
- Ursus maritimus, polar bear
- Ursus maritimus maritimus
- † Ursus maritimus tyrannus
- † Ursus rossicus
- † Ursus sackdillingensis
- † Ursus spelaeus, cave bear
- Ursus thibetanus, Asian black bear
- Ursus thibetanus formosanus, Formosan black bear
- Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus
- Ursus thibetanus japonicus
- Ursus thibetanus laniger
- Ursus thibetanus mupinensis
- Ursus thibetanus thibetanus
- Ursus thibetanus ussuricus
- † Agriotherium
- † Kolponomos
- † Kolponomos clallamensis
- † Kolponomos newportensis
- Subfamily Ailuropodinae
The genera Melursus and Helarctos are sometimes also included in Ursus. The Asiatic black bear and the polar bear used to be placed in their own genera, Selenarctos and Thalarctos; these names have since been reduced in rank to subgeneric rank.
A number of hybrids have been bred between American black, brown, and polar bears.
Biology
Morphology
Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with relatively short legs. They are sexually dimorphic with regard to size, with the males being larger. Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species, and where a species varies in size across its distribution, individuals from larger-sized areas tend also to vary more. Bears are the most massive terrestrial members of the order Carnivora. Some exceptional polar bears and Kodiak bears (a brown bear subspecies) have been weighed at over 750 kg (1,700 lb). As to which species is the largest depends on whether the assessment is based on which species has the largest individuals (brown bears) or on the largest average size (polar bears), as some races of brown bears are much smaller than polar bears. Adult male Kodiak bears average 480 to 533 kg (1,100 to 1,180 lb) compared to an average of 386 to 408 kg (850 to 900 lb) in adult male polar bears, per the Guinness Book of World Records.[20] The smallest bears are the sun bears of Asia, which weigh an average of 65 kg (140 lb) for the males and 45 kg (99 lb) for the females, though the smallest mature females can weigh only 20 kg (44 lb).[21][22] All "medium"-sized bear species (which include the other five extant species) are around the same average weight, with males averaging around 100 to 120 kg (220 to 260 lb) and females averaging around 60 to 85 kg (130 to 190 lb), although it is not uncommon for male American black bears to considerably exceed "average" weights.[23] Head-and-body length can range from 120 cm (47 in) in sun bears to 300 cm (120 in) in large polar and brown bears and shoulder height can range from 60 cm (24 in) to over 160 cm (63 in) in the same species, respectively. The tails of bears are often considered a vestigal feature and can range from 3 to 22 cm (1.2 to 8.7 in).[22][23]
Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are plantigrade. They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are still quite fast, with the brown bear reaching 30 mph (48 km/h), although they are still slower than felines and canines. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Bears' nonretractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. Their ears are rounded.
Bears have an excellent sense of smell, better than the dogs (Canidae), or possibly any other mammal. This sense of smell is used for signalling between bears (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to find most of their food.[21]
Dentition
Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped carnassial teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter. The canine teeth are large, and the molar teeth flat and crushing. Considerable variation occurs in dental formula even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from carnivorous to predominantly herbivorous diets. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved fully functional carnassials, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory.[24] The dental formula for living bears is:
Distribution and habitat
Bears are primarily found in the Northern Hemisphere, and with one exception, only in Asia, North America and Europe. A single species, the spectacled bear, is native to the Andean region of South America. The Atlas bear, a subspecies of the brown bear, was the only bear native to Africa. It was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but has been extinct since around the 1870s. The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All the remaining species are Asian.[21]
With the exception of the polar bear, bears are mostly forest species. Some species, particularly the brown bear, may inhabit or seasonally use other areas, such as alpine scrub or tundra.
Behaviour
While many people think bears are nocturnal, they are, in fact, generally diurnal, active for the most part during the day. The belief they are nocturnal apparently comes from the habits of bears that live near humans, which engage in some nocturnal activities, such as raiding trash cans or crops while avoiding humans. The sloth bear of Asia is the most nocturnal of the bears, but this varies by individual, and females with cubs are often diurnal to avoid competition with males and nocturnal predators.[21] Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. Liaisons between breeding bears are brief, and the only times bears are encountered in small groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs).[21]
Vocalizations
Bears produce a variety of vocalizations such as:
- Moaning is produced mostly as mild warnings to potential threats or in fear,
- Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position.
- Huffing is made during courtship or between mother and cubs to warn of danger.
- Growling is produced as strong warnings to potential threats or in anger.
- Roaring is used much for the same reasons as growls and also to proclaim territory and for intimidation.
Diet and interspecific interactions
Their carnivorous reputation not withstanding, most bears have adopted diets of more plant than animal matter and are completely opportunistic omnivores. Some bears will climb trees to obtain mast (edible vegatative or reproductive parts such as acorns); smaller species that are more able to climb include a greater amount of this in their diets.[25] Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources.[26] One exception is the polar bear, which has adopted a diet mainly of marine mammals to survive in the Arctic. The other exception is the giant panda, which has adopted a diet mainly of bamboo. Stable isotope analysis of the extinct giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus) shows it was also an exclusive meat-eater, probably a scavenger.[27] The sloth bear, though not as specialized as the previous two species, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the ants, termites, and other burrowing insects they favour. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets.[28] All bears will feed on any food source that becomes available, the nature of which varies seasonally. A study of Asiatic black bears in Taiwan found they would consume large numbers of acorns when they were most common, and switch to ungulates at other times of the year.[29]
When taking warm-blooded animals, bears will typically take small or young animals, as they are easier to catch. However, both species of black bears and the brown bear can sometimes take large prey, such as ungulates.[29][30] Often, bears will feed on other large animals when they encounter a carcass, whether or not the carcass is claimed by, or is the kill of, another predator. This competition is the main source of interspecies conflict. Bears are typically the apex predators in their ranges due to their size and power, and can defend a carcass against nearly all comers. Mother bears also can usually defend their cubs against other predators. The tiger is the only predator known to regularly prey on adult bears, including sloth bears, Asiatic black bears, giant pandas, sun bears and small brown bears.
Breeding
The age at which bears reach sexual maturity is highly variable, both between and within species. Sexual maturity is dependent on body condition, which is in turn dependent upon the food supply available to the growing individual. The females of smaller species may have young in as little as two years, whereas the larger species may not rear young until they are four or even 9 years old. First breeding may be even later in males, where competition for mates may leave younger males without access to females.[21]
The bear's courtship period is very brief. Bears in northern climates reproduce seasonally, usually after a period of inactivity similar to hibernation, although tropical species breed all year round. Cubs are born toothless, blind, and bald. The cubs of brown bears, usually born in litters of one to three, will typically stay with the mother for two full seasons. They feed on their mother's milk through the duration of their relationship with their mother, although as the cubs continue to grow, nursing becomes less frequent and cubs learn to begin hunting with the mother. They will remain with the mother for about three years, until she enters the next cycle of estrus and drives the cubs off. Bears will reach sexual maturity in five to seven years. Male bears, especially polar and brown bears, will kill and sometimes devour cubs born to another father to induce a female to breed again. Female bears are often successful in driving off males in protection of their cubs, despite being rather smaller.
Winter dormancy
Many bears of northern regions are assumed[by whom?] to hibernate in the winter. While many bear species do go into a physiological state often colloquially called "hibernation" or "winter sleep", it is not true hibernation.[citation needed] In true hibernators, body temperatures drop to near ambient and heart rates slow drastically, but the animals periodically rouse themselves to urinate or defecate and to eat from stored food. The body temperature of bears, on the other hand, drops only a few degrees from normal and heart rate slows only slightly. They normally do not wake during this "hibernation", so do not eat, drink, urinate, or defecate the entire period. Higher body heat and being easily roused may be adaptations, because females give birth to their cubs during this winter sleep.
Relationship with humans
Some species, such as the polar bear, American black bear, sloth bear, and brown bear, are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have become used to people. All bears are physically powerful and are likely capable of fatally attacking a person, but they, for the most part, are shy, are easily frightened and will avoid humans. Injuries caused by bears are rare, but are often widely reported.[31] The danger that bears pose is often vastly exaggerated, in part by the human imagination. However, when a mother feels her cubs are threatened, she will behave ferociously. It is recommended to give all bears a wide berth because they are behaviorally unpredictable.
Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans.[32][33] These problems may be the work of only a few bears, but they create a climate of conflict, as farmers and ranchers may perceive all losses as due to bears and advocate the preventive removal of all bears.[33] Mitigation methods may be used to reduce bear damage to crops, and reduce local antipathy towards bears.[32]
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from habitat destruction. Public perception of bears is often very positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, ability to stand on two legs, and symbolic importance,[34] and support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies.[35] In more rural and poorer regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.[33] Some populated areas with bear populations have also outlawed the feeding of bears, including allowing them access to garbage or other food waste. Bears in captivity have been trained to dance, box, or ride bicycles; however, this use of the animals became controversial in the late 20th century. Bears were kept for baiting in Europe at least since the 16th century.
Bear hunt
Some cultures use bears for food and folk medicine. Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In Cantonese cuisine, bear paws are considered a delicacy. The peoples of China, Japan, and Korea use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of traditional Chinese medicine. More than 12,000 bile bears are thought to be kept on farms, for their bile, in China, Vietnam, and South Korea.[36] Bear meat must be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with Trichinella spiralis, which can cause trichinosis.[37][38][39]
Culture
Names
The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a Christian saint's name and common in English- and German-speaking countries, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear.
In Scandinavia, the male personal names Björn (Sweden, Iceland) and Bjørn (Norway, Denmark), meaning "bear", are relatively common. In Finland, the male personal name Otso is an old poetic name for bear, similar to Kontio.
In Russian and other Slavic languages, the word for bear, medved (медведь), and variants or derivatives such as Medvedev, are common surnames.
The Irish family name "McMahon" means "Son of Bear" in Irish.
In East European Jewish communities, the name Ber (בער)—Yiddish cognate of "Bear"—has been attested as a common male first name, at least since the 18th century, and was, among others, the name of several prominent rabbis. The Yiddish Ber is still in use among Orthodox Jewish communities in Israel, the US, and other countries. With the transition from Yiddish to Hebrew under the influence of zionism, the Hebrew word for "bear", dov (דב), was taken up in contemporary Israel and is at present among the commonly used male first names in that country.
"Ten Bears" (Paruasemana) was the name of a well-known 19th century chieftain among the Comanche. Also among other Native American tribes, bear-related names are attested.
Myth and legend
There is evidence of prehistoric bear worship. Anthropologists such as Joseph Campbell have regarded this as a common feature in most of the fishing and hunting-tribes. The prehistoric Finns, along with most Siberian peoples, considered the bear as the spirit of one's forefathers. This is why the bear (karhu) was a greatly respected animal, with several euphemistic names (such as otso, mesikämmen and kontio). The bear is the national animal of Finland.
This kind of attitude is reflected in the traditional Russian fairy tale "Morozko", whose arrogant protagonist Ivan tries to kill a mother bear and her cubs—and is punished and humbled by having his own head turned magically into a bear's head and being subsequently shunned by human society.
"The Brown Bear of Norway" is a Scottish fairy tale telling the adventures of a girl who married a prince magically turned into a bear, and who managed to get him back into a human form by the force of her love and after many trials and difficulties. In the 1970s, this story was adapted into the East German fantasy film The Singing Ringing Tree and broadcast on British television.
Evidence of bear worship has been found in early Chinese and Ainu cultures, as well (see Iomante). Korean people in their mythology identify the bear as their ancestor and symbolic animal. According to the Korean legend, a god imposed a difficult test on a she-bear; when she passed it, the god turned her into a woman and married her.
Legends of saints taming bears are common in the Alpine zone. In the arms of the bishopric of Freising, the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by St. Corbinian and made to carry his civilised baggage over the mountains. A bear also features prominently in the legend of St. Romedius, who is also said to have tamed one of these animals and had the same bear carry him from his hermitage in the mountains to the city of Trento.
Similar stories are told of Saint Gall and Saint Columbanus.
This recurrent motif was used by the Church as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over paganism.[40] In the Norse settlements of northern England during the 10th century, a type of "hogback" grave cover of a long narrow block of stone, with a shaped apex like the roof beam of a long house, is carved with a muzzled, thus Christianised, bear clasping each gable end. Though the best collection of these is in the church at Brompton, North Yorkshire,[41] their distribution ranges across northern England and southern Scotland, with a scattered few in the north Midlands and single survivals in Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland; a late group is found in the Orkney Islands.
Bears are a popular feature of many children's stories, including Goldilocks and "The Story of the Three Bears", the Berenstein Bears, and Winnie the Pooh.
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"En uheldig bjørnejakt" (An Unfortunate Bear Hunt) by Theodor Kittelsen.
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Onikuma from Ehon Hyaku Monogatari
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According to his hagiography, a bear killed Saint Corbinian's pack horse on the way to Rome, so the saint commanded it to carry his load. Once he arrived in Rome, however, he let the bear go.
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The saddled "bear of St. Corbinian" the emblem of Freising, here incorporated in the arms of Pope Benedict XVI
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Coat of Arms of the Abbey of Saint Gall
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"The Three Bears", Arthur Rackham's illustration to English Fairy Tales, by
Symbolic use
The Russian bear is a common national personification for Russia (as well as the Soviet Union). The brown bear is also Finland's national animal.
In the United States, the black bear is the state animal of Louisiana, New Mexico, and West Virginia; the grizzly bear is the state animal of both Montana and California. Bears also appear in the state seals of California and Missouri.
In the UK, the bear and staff has long featured on the heraldic arms of Warwickshire county.[42]
Bears appear in the canting arms of Bern and Berlin.
Also, "bear", "bruin", or specific types of bears are popular nicknames or mascots, for example, for sports teams (Chicago Bears, California Golden Bears, UCLA Bruins, Boston Bruins); and a bear cub called Misha was mascot of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, USSR.
Smokey Bear has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944. Known to almost all Americans, he and his message, "Only you can prevent forest fires" (updated in 2001 to "Only you can prevent wildfires"), have been a symbol of preserving woodlands.[43] Smokey wears a hat similar to one worn by U.S. Forest Service rangers; state police officers in some states wear a similar style, giving rise to the CB slang "bear" or "Smokey" for the highway patrol.
The name Beowulf has been hypothesized to mean "bee-wolf", a kenning for "bear".[44]
Figures of speech
The physical attributes and behaviours of bears are commonly used in figures of speech in English.
- In the stock market, a bear market is a period of declining prices. Pessimistic forecasting or negative activity is said to be bearish (due to the stereotypical posture of bears looking downwards), and one who expresses bearish sentiment is a bear. Its opposite is a bull market, and bullish sentiment from bulls.
- In gay slang, the term "bear" refers to male individuals who possess physical attributes much like a bear, such as a heavy build, abundant body hair, and commonly facial hair.
- A bear hug is typically a tight hug that involves wrapping one's arms around another person, often leaving that person's arms immobile. It was used in the Ronald Reagan political ad "Bear in the woods".
- Bear tracking – in the old Western states of the U.S. and, to this day, in the former Dakota Territory, the expression "you ain't just a bear trackin'" is used to mean "you ain't lying" or "that's for sure". This expression evolved as an outgrowth of the experience pioneer hunters and mountainmen had when tracking bear. Bears often lay down false tracks and are notorious for doubling back on anything tracking them. If you are not following bear tracks, you are not following false trails or leads in your thoughts, words or deeds.
- In Korean culture a person is referred to as being "like a bear" when they are stubborn or not sensitive to what is happening around their surroundings. Used as a phrase to call a person "stubborn bear".
- The Bible compares King David's "bitter warriors", who fight with such fury that they could overcome many times their number of opponents, with "a bear robbed of her whelps in the field" (2 Samuel 17:8 s:Bible (King James)/2 Samuel#Chapter 17). The phrase "a bereaved bear" (דב שכול), derived from this Biblical source, is still used in the literary Hebrew of contemporary Israel.
Teddy bears
Around the world, many children have stuffed toys in the form of bears.
Organizations regarding bears
There are at least two authoritative organizations for seeking scientific information on bear species of the world. These focus on, for example, the species' natural history, management, and conservation. The International Association for Bear Research & Management is also known as the International Bear Association (IBA). The Bear Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission is part of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
See also
- Bear hunting
- List of fatal bear attacks in North America
- List of fictional bears
- List of non-fictional bears
- Ursari
- Ursa major
- Ursa minor
References
- ^ "Slovakia warns of tipsy bears". Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ a b Pokorny (1959) indo-european.nl[dead link]
- ^ hildebrand.raa.se[dead link]
- ^ Votruba, Martin. "Bears". Slovak Studies Program. University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ "The Brown One, The Honey Eater, The Shaggy Coat, The Destroyer". Cloudline.org. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
- ^ Welsey-Hunt, G.D. & Flynn, J.J. (2005). "Phylogeny of the Carnivora: basal relationships among the Carnivoramorphans, and assessment of the position of 'Miacoidea' relative to Carnivora". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 3 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1017/S1477201904001518.
- ^ Wang, Xiaoming, Malcolm C. McKenna, and Demberelyin Dashzeveg (2005). "Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon (Arctoidea, Carnivora) from Hsanda Gol Formation, Central Mongolia and Phylogeny of Basal Arctoids with Comments on Zoogeography". American Museum Novitates (3483): 57.
- ^ Kemp, T.S. (2005). The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850760-4.
- ^ Wang Banyue and Qiu Zhanxiang (2005). "Notes on Early Oligocene Ursids (Carnivora, Mammalia) from Saint Jacques, Nei Mongol, China" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 279 (279): 116–124. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2003)279<0116:C>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original on 2009-11-20.
- ^ a b c d Krause, J.; Unger, T.; Noçon, A.; Malaspinas, A.; Kolokotronis, S.; Stiller, M.; Soibelzon, L.; Spriggs, H.; Dear, P. H.; Briggs, A. W.; Bray, S. C. E.; O'Brien, S. J.; Rabeder, G.; Matheus, P.; Cooper, A.; Slatkin, M.; Pääbo, S.; Hofreiter, M. (2008-07-28). "Mitochondrial genomes reveal an explosive radiation of extinct and extant bears near the Miocene-Pliocene boundary". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8 (220): 220. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-220. PMC 2518930. PMID 18662376.
- ^ Soibelzon, L. H.; Tonni, E. P.; Bond, M. (October 2005). "The fossil record of South American short-faced bears (Ursidae, Tremarctinae)". Journal of South American Earth Sciences 20 (1–2): 105–113. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2005.07.005.
- ^ Qiu Zhanxiang (2003). "Dispersals of Neogene Carnivorans between Asia and North America" (PDF). Bulletin American Museum of Natural History 279 (279): 18–31. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2003)279<0018:C>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original on 2009-11-20.
- ^ Kurtén, B., 1995. The cave bear story: life and death of a vanished animal, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-10361-1
- ^ Lindburg, Donald G. (2004). Giant Pandas: Biology and Conservation, pp. 7–9. University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-23867-2
- ^ Olaf R. P. Bininda-Emonds. "Phylogenetic Position of the Giant Panda". In Lindburg, Donald G. (2004) Giant Pandas: Biology and Conservation, pp. 11–35. University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-23867-2
- ^ Flynn, J. J.; Nedbal, M. A.; Dragoo, J. W.; Honeycutt, R. L. (2000). "Whence the Red Panda?". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 17 (2): 190–199. doi:10.1006/mpev.2000.0819. PMID 11083933. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
- ^ Flynn JJ, Finarelli JA, Zehr S, Hsu J, Nedbal MA (2005). "Molecular phylogeny of the carnivora (mammalia): assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships". Systematic Biology 54 (2): 317–337. doi:10.1080/10635150590923326. PMID 16012099.
- ^ Flynn, J. J.; Nedbal, M. A. (1998). "Abstract". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 9 (3): 414–426. doi:10.1006/mpev.1998.0504. PMID 9667990. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. . Retrieved 2009-10-08.
- ^ "The Brown Bear: Father of the Polar Bear?, Alaska Science Forum". Gi.alaska.edu. 1996-12-05. Archived from the original on 2010-01-17. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
- ^ Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
- ^ a b c d e f Garshelis, David L. (2009). "Family Ursidae (Bears)". In Wilson, Don; Mittermeier, Russell. Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 1: Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 978-84-96553-49-1.
- ^ a b Carnivores of the World by Dr. Luke Hunter. Princeton University Press (2011), ISBN 978-0-691-15228-8
- ^ a b Novak, R. M. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World. 6th edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9
- ^ Bunnell, Fred (1984). In Macdonald, D. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-87196-871-5.
- ^ Mattson, David J. (1998). "Diet and Morphology of Extant and Recently Extinct Northern Bears". Ursus, A Selection of Papers from the Tenth International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Fairbanks, Alaska, July 1995, and Mora, Sweden, September 1995 10: 479–496. JSTOR 3873160.
- ^ Ryan, Christopher; Pack, James C.; Igo, William K.; Billings, Anthony (2007). "Influence of mast production on black bear non-hunting mortalities in West Virginia". Ursus 18 (1): 46–53. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2007)18[46:IOMPOB]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Matheus, Paul E. (1995). "Diet and Co-ecology of Pleistocene Short-Faced Bears and Brown Bears in Eastern Beringia". Quaternary Research 44 (3): 447–453. doi:10.1006/qres.1995.1090.
- ^ Joshi, Anup; Garshelis, David L.; Smith, James L. D. (1997). "Seasonal and Habitat-Related Diets of Sloth Bears in Nepal". Journal of Mammalology 1978 (2): 584–597. doi:10.2307/1382910.
- ^ a b Hwang, Mei-Hsiu (2002). "Diets of Asiatic black bears in Taiwan, with Methodological and Geographical Comparisons". Ursus 13: 111–125.
- ^ Zager, Peter; Beecham, John (2006). "The role of American black bears and brown bears as predators on ungulates in North America". Ursus 17 (2): 95–108. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[95:TROABB]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Clark, Douglas (2003). "Polar Bear–Human Interactions in Canadian National Parks, 1986–2000". Ursus 14 (1): 65–71.
- ^ a b Fredriksson, Gabriella (2005). "Human–sun bear conflicts in East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo". Ursus 16 (1): 130–137. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2005)016[0130:HBCIEK]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ a b c Goldstein, Isaac; Paisley, Susanna; Wallace, Robert; Jorgenson, Jeffrey P.; Cuesta, Francisco; Castellanos, Armando (2006). "Andean bear–livestock conflicts: a review". Ursus 17 (1): 8–15. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[8:ABCAR]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Kellert, Stephen (1994). "Public Attitudes toward Bears and Their Conservation". Bears: Their Biology and Management 9 (1): 43–50. doi:10.2307/3872683. JSTOR 3872683.
- ^ Andersone, Žanete; Ozolinš, Jānis (2004). "Public perception of large carnivores in Latvia". Ursus 15 (2): 181–187. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2004)015<0181:PPOLCI>2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Black, Richard (2007-06-11). "BBC Test kit targets cruel bear trade". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
- ^ "Trichinellosis Associated with Bear Meat". Archived from the original on 30 September 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
- ^ "Bear meat poisoning in Siberia". BBC News. 1997-12-21. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
- ^ "Finnish Food Safety Authority: Bear meat must be inspected before serving in restaurants". Retrieved 2006-10-04.
- ^ Pastoreau, Michel (2007) L'ours. Historie d'un roi déchu, Seuil ISBN 2-02-021542-X.
- ^ Noted and illustrated in Hall, Richard (1995) Viking Age Archaeology, p. 43 and fig. 22, ISBN 0-7478-0063-4.
- ^ Warwickshire County Council, Civic heraldry
- ^ "Forest Fire Prevention – Smokey Bear (1944–Present)". Ad Council. 1944-08-09. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
- ^ Sweet, Henry (1884) Anglo-Saxon Reader in Prose and Verse. The Clarendon Press, p. 202.
Further reading
- Bears of the World, Terry Domico, photographs by Terry Domico and Mark Newman, Facts on File, Inc., 1988, hardcover, ISBN 978-0-8160-1536-8.
- The Bear by William Faulkner.
- Brunner, Bernd: Bears: A Brief History. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007.
External links
Find more about Bears at Wikipedia's sister projects | |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary | |
Media from Commons | |
Learning resources from Wikiversity | |
News stories from Wikinews | |
Quotations from Wikiquote | |
Source texts from Wikisource | |
Textbooks from Wikibooks | |
Species directories Ursidae from Wikispecies |
- The Bears Project – Information, reports and images of European brown bears and other living species
- Western Wildlife Outreach – Information on the history, biology, and conservation of North American Grizzly Bears and Black Bears
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Wikipedia preview
出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2017/07/07 20:55:21」(JST)
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[Wiki en表示]Bears Temporal range: 38–0 Ma PreЄ
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Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Suborder: | Caniformia |
Infraorder: | Arctoidea |
Family: | Ursidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 |
Subfamilies | |
†Amphicynodontinae |
Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. Bears are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the continents of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails.
While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous, and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, the remaining six species are omnivorous with varied diets. With the exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically solitary animals. They may be diurnal or nocturnal and have an excellent sense of smell. Despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, as their dens; most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of hibernation, up to 100 days.
Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur; they have been used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment, such as being made to dance. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species, such as the brown bear, are at risk of extirpation in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.
Contents
- 1 Etymology
- 2 Evolution and phylogeny
- 2.1 Paleontology
- 2.2 Phylogeny
- 2.3 Classification
- 3 Physical characteristics
- 3.1 Size
- 3.2 Morphology
- 4 Distribution and habitat
- 5 Behaviour and life history
- 5.1 Feeding
- 5.2 Communication
- 5.3 Reproduction and life cycle
- 5.4 Hibernation
- 5.5 Predators, parasites and pathogens
- 6 Relationship with humans
- 6.1 Conservation
- 6.2 Attacks
- 6.3 Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine
- 6.4 Literature, art and symbolism
- 6.5 Organizations
- 7 See also
- 8 Notes
- 9 References
- 9.1 Bibliography
- 10 Further reading
- 11 External links
Etymology
The English word "bear" comes from Old English bera and belongs to a family of names for the bear in Germanic languages, such as Swedish björn, also used as a first name, that originate from an adjective meaning "brown".[1]
Bear taxon names such as Arctoidea and Helarctos come from the ancient Greek word ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear,[2] as do the names "arctic" and "antarctic", from the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky.[3]
Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear.[3] The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a Christian saint's name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear. The Germanic name Bernard (including Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear".[4][5] The Old English name Beowulf is a kenning, "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior.[6]
Evolution and phylogeny
The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder Caniformia, or "doglike" carnivorans, within the order Carnivora. Bears' closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids.[7] Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies: Ailuropodinae (monotypic with the giant panda), Tremarctinae (monotypic with the spectacled bear), and Ursinae (containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that the karyotype of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, with each having 74 chromosomes, whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two species in Ursidae rather than in Procyonidae, where they had been placed by some earlier authorities.[8]
Paleontology
The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including Parictis (late Eocene to early middle Miocene, 38–18 Mya) and the slightly younger Allocyon (early Oligocene, 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance, and diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene.[9] It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the Bering land bridge may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene.[10] European genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American Kolponomos (about 18 Mya),[11] are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon.[10]
The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the oldest-known member of the subfamily Hemicyoninae, which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30 Mya.[10] The subfamily includes the younger genera Phoberocyon (20–15 Mya), and Plithocyon (15–7 Mya). A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya). Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus between 15 and 20 Mya,[12][13] likely via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 5 Mya.[14]
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13 Mya).[14] They invaded South America (≈1 Ma) following formation of the Isthmus of Panama.[15] Their earliest fossil representative is Plionarctos in North America (~ 10–2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the North American short-faced bears (genus Arctodus), the South American short-faced bears (Arctotherium), and the spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species (T. floridanus), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).[10]
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya, coincident with major environmental changes; the first members of the genus Ursus appeared around this time.[14] The sloth bear is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of Europe; apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's Asian black bear. It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the sun bear, the Asian black bear, and the American black bear); and the brown bears (which includes the polar bear). Modern brown bears evolved from U. minimus via Ursus etruscus, which itself is ancestral to the extinct Pleistocene cave bear. Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene. The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from the brown bear around 400,000 years ago.[16][17][18]
Phylogeny
The bears form a clade within the Carnivora. The red panda is not a bear but a musteloid. The cladogram is based on molecular phylogeny of six genes in Flynn, 2005.[19]
Carnivora |
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The phylogeny of extant bear species is shown in a cladogram based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al., 2007.[20] The giant panda, followed by the spectacled bear are clearly the oldest species. The relationships of the other species are not very well resolved, though the polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping.[8]
Ursidae |
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Classification
Extant species are shown in bold, extinct taxa are marked †.[21]
- Family Ursidae
- Subfamily Ailuropodinae[22]
- † Ailurarctos
- † Ailurarctos lufengensis
- † Ailurarctos yuanmouenensis
- Ailuropoda (pandas)
Kretzoiarctos beatrix lower jaws, this European species from the Miocene was a relative of the modern giant panda.
- † Ailuropoda baconi
- † Ailuropoda fovealis
- Ailuropoda melanoleuca – giant panda
- † Ailuropoda microta
- † Ailuropoda wulingshanensis
- † Kretzoiarctos
- † Ailurarctos
- Subfamily Tremarctinae[23]
- † Plionarctos
- † Plionarctos edensis
- † Plionarctos harroldorum
- Tremarctos (spectacled bears)
- Tremarctos ornatus – spectacled bear
- † Tremarctos floridanus – Florida spectacled bear
- † Arctodus
Arctodus simus of Pleistocene and Early Holocene North America was the largest known bear.[24]
- † Arctodus simus – giant short-faced bear
- † Arctodus pristinus
- † Arctotherium
Arctotherium restoration, this Pleistocene genus from the Americas was part of a lineage survived by the modern spectacled bear.
- † Arctotherium angustidens
- † Arctotherium bonariense
- † Arctotherium brasilense
- † Arctotherium latidens
- † Arctotherium tarijense
- † Arctotherium vetustum
- † Arctotherium wingei
- † Plionarctos
- Subfamily Ursinae
- † Ursavus
- † Ursavus brevirhinus
- † Ursavus depereti
- † Ursavus elmensis
- † Ursavus pawniensis
- † Ursavus primaevus
- † Ursavus tedfordi
- † Indarctos
Skull of Indarctos atticus. Indarctos was a Miocene genus found across the northern hemisphere.[25]
- † Indarctos anthraciti
- † Indarctos arctoides
- † Indarctos atticus
- † Indarctos nevadensis
- † Indarctos oregonensis
- † Indarctos salmontanus
- † Indarctos vireti
- † Indarctos zdanskyi
- † Agriotherium
Agriotherium mandible, this Miocene to Pleistocene genus is the only known ursid to have lived in sub-Saharan Africa.[26]
- † Agriotherium inexpetans
- † Agriotherium schneideri
- † Agriotherium sivalensis
- Melursus
- Melursus ursinus – sloth bear
- Helarctos
- Helarctos malayanus – sun bear
- Ursus
- † Ursus rossicus
- † Ursus sackdillingensis
- † Ursus minimus
- Ursus thibetanus – Asian black bear
- † Ursus abstrusus
- Ursus americanus – American black bear
- † Ursus etruscus
- Ursus arctos – brown bear
- Ursus maritimus – polar bear
- † Ursus savini
- † Ursus deningeri
- † Ursus spelaeus – cave bear
- † Ursus inopinatus, MacFarlane's bear (cryptid; possibly a hybrid)
- † Ursavus
- † Kolponomos
- † Kolponomos clallamensis
- † Kolponomos newportensis
- Subfamily Ailuropodinae[22]
Physical characteristics
Size
Bears include the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order Carnivora.[a] Polar bears weigh up to 1,600 lb (730 kg).[27] The smallest are the sun bears of Asia, which weigh up to 150 lb (68 kg).[28] Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn and lose weight during the winter.[30] Head-and-body length can range from 150 cm (59 in) in sun bears[28] to 244 cm (96 in) in polar bears.[27]
Morphology
Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are sexually dimorphic with regard to size, with the males being larger.[31][32] Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species.[32] Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs with thick bones to support their bulk. The shoulder blades and the pelvis are correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the big cats as there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, to excavate dens, to dig out burrowing animals, to turn over rocks and logs to locate prey, and to club large creatures.[30]
Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are plantigrade. They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance when climbing trees; black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.[30]
Most mammals have agouti hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of colour corresponding to two different types of melanin pigment. Bears however have a single type of melanin and the hairs have a single colour throughout their length, apart from the tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-coloured skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles of their feet have a dense pad of fur.[30] Other than the bold black-and-white pelage of the panda, bears tend to be uniform in colour, although some species may have markings on the chest or face.[33]
Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimise heat loss, but neither their hearing or sight are particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivorans they have colour vision, perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among carnivorans in not having touch-sensitive whiskers on the muzzle; however, they have an excellent sense of smell, better than that of the dog, or possibly any other mammal. They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food, and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have found food before.[30]
The skulls of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the powerful masseter and temporal jaw muscles. The canine teeth are large but mostly used for display, and the molar teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped carnassial teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter.[30] Considerable variation occurs in dental formula even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory.[34] Sloth bears lack lower central incisors and use their protusible lips for sucking up the termites on which they feed.[30] The general dental formula for living bears is: 3.1.2–4.23.1.2–4.3.[30] The structure of the larynx of bears appears to be the most basal of the caniforms.[35] They possess air pouches connected to the pharynx which may amplify their vocalisations.[36]
Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no cecum.[37][38] Even the herbivorous giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes. Its ability to digest cellulose is ascribed to the microbes in its gut.[39] Bears must spend much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from foliage. The panda, in particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding.[40]
Distribution and habitat
Extant bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is the spectacled bear; native to South America, it inhabits the Andean region.[41] The sun bear's range extends below the equator in Southeast Asia.[42] The Atlas bear, a subspecies of the brown bear was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the 1870s.[43]
The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All the remaining species of bear are Asian.[41] They occur in a range of habitats which include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies, steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the polar bear, ice floes.[41][44] Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs and dense vegetation for shelter.[44]
Behaviour and life history
Brown and American black bears are generally diurnal, meaning that they are active for the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night.[45] Other species may be nocturnal, active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators.[46] Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. The only times bears are encountered in small groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs).[47][48] Fights between males may occur and older individuals may have extensive scarring, which suggests that maintaining dominance is intense.[49] With their acute sense of smell, bears can locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use olfaction to locate other foods, encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognise their cubs.[30]
Feeding
Most bears are opportunistic omnivores and consume more plant than animal matter. They eat anything from leaves, roots, and berries to insects, carrion, fresh meat, and fish, and have digestive systems and teeth adapted to such a diet.[41] At the extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally available.[40] For example, Asiatic black bears in Taiwan consume large numbers of acorns when these are most common, and switch to ungulates at other times of the year.[50]
When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older grasses, sedges and leaves.[38][40] Hence, in more northern temperate areas, browsing and grazing is more common early in spring and later becomes more restricted.[51] Knowing when plants are ripe for eating is a learned behaviour.[40] Berries may be foraged in bushes or at the tops of trees, and bears try to maximize the number of berries consumed versus foliage.[51] In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of naturally fermented fruits, which affects their behaviour.[52] Smaller bears climb trees to obtain mast (edible reproductive parts, such as acorns).[53] Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources.[54] Brown bears, with their powerful digging abilities, commonly eat roots.[51] The panda's diet is over 99% bamboo,[55] of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted for crushing the tough stems of these plants, though they prefer to eat the more nutritious leaves.[56][57] Bromeliads can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear, which also has strong jaws to bite them open.[58]
The sloth bear, though not as specialised as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the ants, termites, and other burrowing insects they favour. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets.[59] Some species may raid the nests of wasps and bees for the honey and immature insects, in spite of stinging from the adults.[60] Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up both insects and honey.[61] Fish are an important source of food for some species, and brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at salmon runs. Typically, a bear plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts to eat are the brain and eggs. Small burrowing mammals like rodents may be dug out and eaten.[62][51]
The brown bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such as deer and bovids, mostly the young and weak.[50][63][62] These animals may be taken by a short rush and ambush, though hiding young may be stiffed out and pounced on.[51][64] The polar bear mainly preys on seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber.[65][62] Large mammalian prey is typically killed by a bite to the head or neck, or (in the case of young) simply pinned down and mauled.[51][66] Predatory behaviour in bears is typically taught to the young by the mother.[62]
Bears are prolific scavengers and kleptoparasites, stealing food caches from rodents, and carcasses from other predators.[38][67] For hibernating species, weight gain is important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat 41 kg (90 lb) of food and gain 2–3 kg (4.4–6.6 lb) of fat a day prior to entering its den.[68]
Communication
Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking, grunting or chuffing many be made in cordial situations, such as between mothers and cubs or courting couples, while moaning, huffing, sorting or blowing air is made when an individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while teeth-chatters, bellows, growls, roars and pulsing sounds are made in aggressive encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-like humming when comfortable or nursing.[69][70][35][71][72][73]
Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as standing upright, which exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes during agonistic encounters.[33] Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged walking with the head lowered. Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing the canine teeth, muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down.[74][48]
Bears may mark territory by rubbing against trees and other objects which may serve to spread their scent. This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post.[75] Pandas are known to mark objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands.[76] Polar bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.[77]
Reproduction and life cycle
The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of polygyny, promiscuity and serial monogamy.[78][79][80] During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting and vocalising. Ovulation is induced by mating, which can last up to 30 minutes depending on the species.[79]
Gestation typically lasts 6–9 months, including delayed implantation, and litter size numbers up to four cubs.[81] Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only suckle one young and the other is left to die.[82] In northern living species, birth takes place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By 2–3 months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot, but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back.[81][44] Male bears play no role in raising young. Infanticide, where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other species.[83] Males kill young to bring the female into oestrus.[84] Cubs may flee and the mother defends them even at the cost of her life.[85][86][87]
In some species, offspring may become independent around the next spring, through some may stay until the female successfully mates again. Bears reach sexual maturity shortly after they disperse; at around 3–6 years depending on the species. Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years old.[81] Lifespan may also vary between species. The brown bear can live an average of 25 years.[88]
Hibernation
Bears of northern regions, including the American black bear and the grizzly bear, hibernate in the winter.[89][90] During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its body temperature decreases slightly, and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55 to just 9 beats per minute.[91] Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating.[30] A fecal plug is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring.[92] If they have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste urea.[30] Female bears give birth during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so.[90]
Predators, parasites and pathogens
As animals at the summit of the food chain, bears do not have many predators. The most important are humans, and as they started cultivating crops, they increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided them. Since the invention of firearms, people have been able to kill bears with greater ease.[93] The tiger is the only four-legged predator that regularly preys on adult bears, including brown bears, sloth bears, Asiatic black bears, and sun bears.[94][95][96][97][98][99]
Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and bloodstream. Externally they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan Sarcocystis, the parasitic worm Diphyllobothrium mansonoides, and the nematodes Dirofilaria immitis, Capillaria aerophila, Physaloptera sp., Strongyloides sp. and others. Of these, D. mansonoides and adult C. aerophila were causing pathological symptoms.[100] By contrast, polar bears have few parasites; many parasitic species need a secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has been found in polar bears, and the nematode Trichinella nativa can cause a serious infection and decline in older polar bears.[101] Bears in North America are sometimes infected by a Morbillivirus similar to the canine distemper virus.[102] They are susceptible to infectious canine hepatitis (CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and hepatitis.[103]
Relationship with humans
Conservation
In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats[104] and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market, though hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming.[105] The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable;[106] even the two least concern species, the brown bear and the American black bear,[106] are at risk of extirpation in certain areas. In general these two species inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation.[107]
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from habitat destruction. Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, their ability to stand on two legs, and their symbolic importance.[108] Support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies.[109] Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans.[110][111] In poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.[110]
Attacks
Several bear species are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have become used to people; elsewhere, they generally avoid humans. Injuries caused by bears are rare, but are widely reported.[112] Bears may attack humans in response to being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons.[113]
Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine
Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been trained to dance,[114] and were kept for baiting in Europe at least since the 16th century. There were five bear-baiting gardens in Southwark, London at that time; archaeological remains of three of these have survived.[115] Across Europe, nomadic Romani bear handlers called Ursari lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century.[116]
Bears have been hunted for sport, food, and folk medicine. Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In Cantonese cuisine, bear paws are considered a delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the parasite Trichinella spiralis.[117][118]
The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of traditional Chinese medicine. More than 12,000 bears are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under CITES, but bear bile has been detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States and Australia.[119]
Literature, art and symbolism
There is evidence of prehistoric bear worship, though this is disputed by archaeologists.[120] The prehistoric Finns,[121] Siberian peoples[122] and more recently Koreans considered the bear as the spirit of their forefathers.[123] There is evidence of bear worship in early Chinese and Ainu cultures.[124] In many Native American cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-emergence.[125] The image of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia, based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs.[126] Japanese folklore features the Onikuma, a "demon bear" that walks upright.[127] The Ainu of northern Japan, a different people from the Japanese, saw the bear instead as sacred; Hirasawa Byozan painted a scene in documentary style of a bear sacrifice in an Ainu temple, complete with offerings to the dead animal's spirit.[128]
Artio (Dea Artio in the Gallo-Roman religion) was a Celtic bear goddess. Evidence of her worship has notably been found at Bern, itself named for the bear. Her name is derived from the Celtic word for "bear", artos.[129] In ancient Greece, archaic cult of Artemis in bear form survived into Classical times at Brauron, where young Athenian girls passed an initiation right as arktai "she bears".[130] For Artemis and one of her nymphs as a she-bear, see the myth of Callisto.
The constellations of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the great and little bears, are named for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of Ptolemy.[b][3] The nearby star Arcturus means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations.[132] Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years since Paleolithic times, in the widespread Cosmic Hunt myths. These are found on both sides of the Bering land bridge, which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago.[133]
Pliny the Elder's Natural History (1st century AD) claims that "when first born, [bears] are shapeless masses of white flesh, a little larger than mice; their claws alone being prominent. The mother then licks them gradually into proper shape."[134] This belief was echoed by authors of bestiaries throughout the medieval period.[135]
Bears are mentioned in the Bible; the Second Book of Kings relates the story of the prophet Elisha calling on them to eat the youths who taunted him.[136] Legends of saints taming bears are common in the Alpine zone. In the arms of the bishopric of Freising, the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by St. Corbinian and made to carry his civilised baggage over the mountains. Bears similarly feature in the legends of St. Romedius, Saint Gall and Saint Columbanus. This recurrent motif was used by the Church as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over paganism.[137] In the Norse settlements of northern England during the 10th century, a type of "hogback" grave cover of a long narrow block of stone, with a shaped apex like the roof beam of a long house, is carved with a muzzled, thus Christianised, bear clasping each gable end, as in the church at Brompton, North Yorkshire and across the British Isles.[138]
Bears are popular in children's stories, including Winnie the Pooh,[139] Paddington Bear,[140] Gentle Ben[141] and "The Brown Bear of Norway".[142] An early version of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears",[143] was published as "The Three Bears" in 1837 by Robert Southey, many times retold, and illustrated in 1918 by Arthur Rackham.[144] The cartoon character Yogi Bear has appeared in numerous comic books, animated television shows and films.[145][146] The Care Bears began as greeting cards in 1982, and were featured as toys, on clothing and in film.[147] Around the world, many children—and some adults—have teddy bears, stuffed toys in the form of bears, named after the American statesman Theodore Roosevelt when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an American black bear tied to a tree.[148]
Bears, like other animals, may symbolize nations. In 1911, the British satirical magazine Punch published a cartoon about the Anglo-Russian Entente by Leonard Raven-Hill in which the British lion watches as the Russian bear sits on the tail of the Persian cat.[149] The Russian Bear has been a common national personification for Russia from the 16th century onwards.[150] Smokey Bear has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his message "Only you can prevent forest fires".[151] In the UK, the bear and staff feature on the heraldic arms of the county of Warwickshire.[152] Bears appear in the canting arms of two cities, Bern and Berlin.[153]
Organizations
The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as the International Bear Association, and the Bear Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission, a part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature focus on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat Conservation.[154]
Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:
- Vital Ground, for the brown bear[155]
- Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear[156]
- Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear[157]
- Polar Bears International, for the polar bear[158]
- Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear[159]
- Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear[160]
- Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear[161]
- Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda[162]
See also
- List of fictional bears
- List of individual bears
Notes
- ^ Treating Pinnipeds[29] as marine mammals
- ^ Ptolemy named the constellations in Greek, Ἄρκτος μεγάλη (Arktos Megale) and Ἄρκτος μικρά (Arktos Mikra), the great and little bears.[131]
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Bibliography
- Ward, P.; Kynaston, S. (1995). Wild Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-3245-7. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Further reading
- Domico, Terry; Newman, Mark (1988). Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-1536-8.
- Faulkner, William (1942). The Bear. Curley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7927-0537-6.
- Brunner, Bernd (2007). Bears: A Brief History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12299-2.
External links
- Definitions from Wiktionary
- Media from Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Learning resources from Wikiversity
- Taxonomy from Wikispecies
- The Bears Project – Information, reports and images of European brown bears and other living species
- Western Wildlife Outreach – Information on the history, biology, and conservation of North American Grizzly Bears and Black Bears
- The Bear Book and Curriculum Guide – a compilation of stories about all eight species of bears worldwide, including STEM lessons rooted in bear research, ecology, and conservation
Extant Carnivora species
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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』「2017/12/01 07:39:48」(JST)
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[Wiki en表示]Bears Temporal range: 38–0 Ma PreЄ
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Brown bear | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Suborder: | Caniformia |
Infraorder: | Arctoidea |
Family: | Ursidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 |
Subfamilies | |
†Amphicynodontinae |
Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the continents of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails.
While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous, and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, the remaining six species are omnivorous with varied diets. With the exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically solitary animals. They may be diurnal or nocturnal and have an excellent sense of smell. Despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, as their dens; most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of hibernation, up to 100 days.
Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur; they have been used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment, such as being made to dance. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species, such as the brown bear, are at risk of extirpation in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.
Contents
- 1 Etymology
- 2 Taxonomy and phylogeny
- 2.1 Evolution
- 2.2 Phylogeny
- 2.3 Classification
- 3 Physical characteristics
- 3.1 Size
- 3.2 Morphology
- 4 Distribution and habitat
- 5 Behaviour and life history
- 5.1 Feeding
- 5.2 Communication
- 5.3 Reproduction and life cycle
- 5.4 Hibernation
- 5.5 Predators, parasites and pathogens
- 6 Relationship with humans
- 6.1 Conservation
- 6.2 Attacks
- 6.3 Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine
- 6.4 Literature, art and symbolism
- 6.5 Organizations
- 7 See also
- 8 Notes
- 9 References
- 9.1 Bibliography
- 10 Further reading
- 11 External links
Etymology
The English word "bear" comes from Old English bera and belongs to a family of names for the bear in Germanic languages, such as Swedish björn, also used as a first name, that originate from an adjective meaning "brown".[1]
Bear taxon names such as Arctoidea and Helarctos come from the ancient Greek word ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear,[2] as do the names "arctic" and "antarctic", from the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky.[3]
Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear.[3] The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a Christian saint's name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear. The Germanic name Bernard (including Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear".[4][5] The Old English name Beowulf is a kenning, "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior.[6]
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder Caniformia, or "doglike" carnivorans, within the order Carnivora. Bears' closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids.[7] Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies: Ailuropodinae (monotypic with the giant panda), Tremarctinae (monotypic with the spectacled bear), and Ursinae (containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that the karyotype of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, with each having 74 chromosomes, whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two species in Ursidae rather than in Procyonidae, where they had been placed by some earlier authorities.[8]
Evolution
The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including Parictis (late Eocene to early middle Miocene, 38–18 Mya) and the slightly younger Allocyon (early Oligocene, 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance, and diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene.[9] It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the Bering land bridge may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene.[10] European genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American Kolponomos (about 18 Mya),[11] are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon.[10]
The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the oldest-known member of the subfamily Hemicyoninae, which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30 Mya.[10] The subfamily includes the younger genera Phoberocyon (20–15 Mya), and Plithocyon (15–7 Mya). A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya). Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus between 15 and 20 Mya,[12][13] likely via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 5 Mya.[14]
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13 Mya).[14] They invaded South America (≈1 Ma) following formation of the Isthmus of Panama.[15] Their earliest fossil representative is Plionarctos in North America (~ 10–2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the North American short-faced bears (genus Arctodus), the South American short-faced bears (Arctotherium), and the spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species (T. floridanus), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).[10]
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya, coincident with major environmental changes; the first members of the genus Ursus appeared around this time.[14] The sloth bear is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of Europe; apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's Asian black bear. It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the sun bear, the Asian black bear, and the American black bear); and the brown bears (which includes the polar bear). Modern brown bears evolved from U. minimus via Ursus etruscus, which itself is ancestral to the extinct Pleistocene cave bear. Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene. The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from the brown bear around 400,000 years ago.[16][17][18]
Phylogeny
The bears form a clade within the Carnivora. The red panda is not a bear but a musteloid. The cladogram is based on molecular phylogeny of six genes in Flynn, 2005.[19]
Carnivora |
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The phylogeny of extant bear species is shown in a cladogram based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al., 2007.[20] The giant panda, followed by the spectacled bear are clearly the oldest species. The relationships of the other species are not very well resolved, though the polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping.[8]
Ursidae |
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Classification
Extant species are shown in bold, extinct taxa are marked †.[21]
- Family Ursidae
- Subfamily Ailuropodinae[22]
- † Ailurarctos
- † Ailurarctos lufengensis
- † Ailurarctos yuanmouenensis
- Ailuropoda (pandas)
Kretzoiarctos beatrix lower jaws, this European species from the Miocene was a relative of the modern giant panda.
- † Ailuropoda baconi
- † Ailuropoda fovealis
- Ailuropoda melanoleuca – giant panda
- † Ailuropoda microta
- † Ailuropoda wulingshanensis
- † Kretzoiarctos
- † Ailurarctos
- Subfamily Tremarctinae[23]
- † Plionarctos
- † Plionarctos edensis
- † Plionarctos harroldorum
- Tremarctos (spectacled bears)
- Tremarctos ornatus – spectacled bear
- † Tremarctos floridanus – Florida spectacled bear
- † Arctodus
Arctodus simus of Pleistocene and Early Holocene North America was the largest known bear.[24]
- † Arctodus simus – giant short-faced bear
- † Arctodus pristinus
- † Arctotherium
Restoration of Arctotherium, a South American Pleistocene genus from a lineage whose only survivor is the spectacled bear
- † Arctotherium angustidens
- † Arctotherium bonariense
- † Arctotherium brasilense
- † Arctotherium latidens
- † Arctotherium tarijense
- † Arctotherium vetustum
- † Arctotherium wingei
- † Plionarctos
- Subfamily Ursinae
- † Ursavus
- † Ursavus brevirhinus
- † Ursavus depereti
- † Ursavus elmensis
- † Ursavus pawniensis
- † Ursavus primaevus
- † Ursavus tedfordi
- † Indarctos
Skull of Indarctos atticus. Indarctos was a Miocene genus found across the northern hemisphere.[25]
- † Indarctos anthraciti
- † Indarctos arctoides
- † Indarctos atticus
- † Indarctos nevadensis
- † Indarctos oregonensis
- † Indarctos salmontanus
- † Indarctos vireti
- † Indarctos zdanskyi
- † Agriotherium
Agriotherium mandible, this Miocene to Pleistocene genus is the only known ursid to have lived in sub-Saharan Africa.[26]
- † Agriotherium inexpetans
- † Agriotherium schneideri
- † Agriotherium sivalensis
- Melursus
- Melursus ursinus – sloth bear
- Helarctos
- Helarctos malayanus – sun bear
- Ursus
- † Ursus rossicus
- † Ursus sackdillingensis
- † Ursus minimus
- Ursus thibetanus – Asian black bear
- † Ursus abstrusus
- Ursus americanus – American black bear
- † Ursus etruscus
- Ursus arctos – brown bear
- Ursus maritimus – polar bear
- † Ursus savini
- † Ursus deningeri
- † Ursus spelaeus – cave bear
- † Ursus inopinatus, MacFarlane's bear (cryptid; possibly a hybrid)
- † Ursavus
- † Kolponomos
- † Kolponomos clallamensis
- † Kolponomos newportensis
- Subfamily Ailuropodinae[22]
Physical characteristics
Size
Bears include the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order Carnivora.[a] Polar bears weigh up to 1,600 lb (730 kg).[27] The smallest are the sun bears of Asia, which weigh up to 150 lb (68 kg).[28] Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn and lose weight during the winter.[30] Head-and-body length can range from 150 cm (59 in) in sun bears[28] to 244 cm (96 in) in polar bears.[27]
Morphology
Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are sexually dimorphic with regard to size, with males typically being larger.[31][32] Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species.[32] Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs with thick bones to support their bulk. The shoulder blades and the pelvis are correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the big cats as there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, to excavate dens, to dig out burrowing animals, to turn over rocks and logs to locate prey, and to club large creatures.[30]
Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are plantigrade. They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance when climbing trees; black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.[30]
Most mammals have agouti hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of colour corresponding to two different types of melanin pigment. Bears however have a single type of melanin and the hairs have a single colour throughout their length, apart from the tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-coloured skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles of their feet have a dense pad of fur.[30] Other than the bold black-and-white pelage of the panda, bears tend to be uniform in colour, although some species may have markings on the chest or face.[33]
Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimise heat loss, but neither their hearing or sight are particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivorans they have colour vision, perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among carnivorans in not having touch-sensitive whiskers on the muzzle; however, they have an excellent sense of smell, better than that of the dog, or possibly any other mammal. They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food, and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have found food before.[30]
The skulls of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the powerful masseter and temporal jaw muscles. The canine teeth are large but mostly used for display, and the molar teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped carnassial teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter.[30] Considerable variation occurs in dental formula even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory.[34] Sloth bears lack lower central incisors and use their protusible lips for sucking up the termites on which they feed.[30] The general dental formula for living bears is: 3.1.2–4.23.1.2–4.3.[30] The structure of the larynx of bears appears to be the most basal of the caniforms.[35] They possess air pouches connected to the pharynx which may amplify their vocalisations.[36]
Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no cecum.[37][38] Even the herbivorous giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes. Its ability to digest cellulose is ascribed to the microbes in its gut.[39] Bears must spend much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from foliage. The panda, in particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding.[40]
Distribution and habitat
Extant bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is the spectacled bear; native to South America, it inhabits the Andean region.[41] The sun bear's range extends below the equator in Southeast Asia.[42] The Atlas bear, a subspecies of the brown bear was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the 1870s.[43]
The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All the remaining species of bear are Asian.[41] They occur in a range of habitats which include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies, steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the polar bear, ice floes.[41][44] Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs and dense vegetation for shelter.[44]
Behaviour and life history
Brown and American black bears are generally diurnal, meaning that they are active for the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night.[45] Other species may be nocturnal, active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators.[46] Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. The only times bears are encountered in small groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs).[47][48] Fights between males can occur and older individuals may have extensive scarring, which suggests that maintaining dominance can be intense.[49] With their acute sense of smell, bears can locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use olfaction to locate other foods, encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognise their cubs.[30]
Feeding
Most bears are opportunistic omnivores and consume more plant than animal matter. They eat anything from leaves, roots, and berries to insects, carrion, fresh meat, and fish, and have digestive systems and teeth adapted to such a diet.[41] At the extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally available.[40] For example, Asiatic black bears in Taiwan consume large numbers of acorns when these are most common, and switch to ungulates at other times of the year.[50]
When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older grasses, sedges and leaves.[38][40] Hence, in more northern temperate areas, browsing and grazing is more common early in spring and later becomes more restricted.[51] Knowing when plants are ripe for eating is a learned behaviour.[40] Berries may be foraged in bushes or at the tops of trees, and bears try to maximize the number of berries consumed versus foliage.[51] In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of naturally fermented fruits, which affects their behaviour.[52] Smaller bears climb trees to obtain mast (edible reproductive parts, such as acorns).[53] Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources.[54] Brown bears, with their powerful digging abilities, commonly eat roots.[51] The panda's diet is over 99% bamboo,[55] of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted for crushing the tough stems of these plants, though they prefer to eat the more nutritious leaves.[56][57] Bromeliads can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear, which also has strong jaws to bite them open.[58]
The sloth bear, though not as specialised as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the ants, termites, and other burrowing insects they favour. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets.[59] Some species may raid the nests of wasps and bees for the honey and immature insects, in spite of stinging from the adults.[60] Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up both insects and honey.[61] Fish are an important source of food for some species, and brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at salmon runs. Typically, a bear plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts to eat are the brain and eggs. Small burrowing mammals like rodents may be dug out and eaten.[62][51]
The brown bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such as deer and bovids, mostly the young and weak.[50][63][62] These animals may be taken by a short rush and ambush, though hiding young may be stiffed out and pounced on.[51][64] The polar bear mainly preys on seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber.[65][62] Large mammalian prey is typically killed by a bite to the head or neck, or (in the case of young) simply pinned down and mauled.[51][66] Predatory behaviour in bears is typically taught to the young by the mother.[62]
Bears are prolific scavengers and kleptoparasites, stealing food caches from rodents, and carcasses from other predators.[38][67] For hibernating species, weight gain is important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat 41 kg (90 lb) of food and gain 2–3 kg (4.4–6.6 lb) of fat a day prior to entering its den.[68]
Communication
Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking, grunting or chuffing many be made in cordial situations, such as between mothers and cubs or courting couples, while moaning, huffing, sorting or blowing air is made when an individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while teeth-chatters, bellows, growls, roars and pulsing sounds are made in aggressive encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-like humming when comfortable or nursing.[69][70][35][71][72][73]
Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as standing upright, which exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes during agonistic encounters.[33] Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged walking with the head lowered. Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing the canine teeth, muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down.[74][48]
Bears may mark territory by rubbing against trees and other objects which may serve to spread their scent. This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post.[75] Pandas are known to mark objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands.[76] Polar bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.[77]
Reproduction and life cycle
The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of polygyny, promiscuity and serial monogamy.[78][79][80] During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting and vocalising. Ovulation is induced by mating, which can last up to 30 minutes depending on the species.[79]
Gestation typically lasts 6–9 months, including delayed implantation, and litter size numbers up to four cubs.[81] Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only suckle one young and the other is left to die.[82] In northern living species, birth takes place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By 2–3 months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot, but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back.[81][44] Male bears play no role in raising young. Infanticide, where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other species.[83] Males kill young to bring the female into oestrus.[84] Cubs may flee and the mother defends them even at the cost of her life.[85][86][87]
In some species, offspring may become independent around the next spring, through some may stay until the female successfully mates again. Bears reach sexual maturity shortly after they disperse; at around 3–6 years depending on the species. Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years old.[81] Lifespan may also vary between species. The brown bear can live an average of 25 years.[88]
Hibernation
Bears of northern regions, including the American black bear and the grizzly bear, hibernate in the winter.[89][90] During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its body temperature decreases slightly, and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55 to just 9 beats per minute.[91] Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating.[30] A fecal plug is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring.[92] If they have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste urea.[30] Female bears give birth during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so.[90]
Predators, parasites and pathogens
As animals at the summit of the food chain, bears do not have many predators. The most important are humans, and as they started cultivating crops, they increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided them. Since the invention of firearms, people have been able to kill bears with greater ease.[93] The tiger is the only four-legged predator that regularly preys on adult bears, including brown bears, sloth bears, Asiatic black bears, and sun bears.[94][95][96][97][98][99]
Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and bloodstream. Externally they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan Sarcocystis, the parasitic worm Diphyllobothrium mansonoides, and the nematodes Dirofilaria immitis, Capillaria aerophila, Physaloptera sp., Strongyloides sp. and others. Of these, D. mansonoides and adult C. aerophila were causing pathological symptoms.[100] By contrast, polar bears have few parasites; many parasitic species need a secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has been found in polar bears, and the nematode Trichinella nativa can cause a serious infection and decline in older polar bears.[101] Bears in North America are sometimes infected by a Morbillivirus similar to the canine distemper virus.[102] They are susceptible to infectious canine hepatitis (CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and hepatitis.[103]
Relationship with humans
Conservation
In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats[104] and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market, though hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming.[105] The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable;[106] even the two least concern species, the brown bear and the American black bear,[106] are at risk of extirpation in certain areas. In general these two species inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation.[107]
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from habitat destruction. Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, their ability to stand on two legs, and their symbolic importance.[108] Support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies.[109] Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans.[110][111] In poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.[110]
Attacks
Several bear species are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have become used to people; elsewhere, they generally avoid humans. Injuries caused by bears are rare, but are widely reported.[112] Bears may attack humans in response to being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons.[113]
Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine
Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been trained to dance,[114] and were kept for baiting in Europe at least since the 16th century. There were five bear-baiting gardens in Southwark, London at that time; archaeological remains of three of these have survived.[115] Across Europe, nomadic Romani bear handlers called Ursari lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century.[116]
Bears have been hunted for sport, food, and folk medicine. Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In Cantonese cuisine, bear paws are considered a delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the parasite Trichinella spiralis.[117][118]
The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of traditional Chinese medicine. More than 12,000 bears are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under CITES, but bear bile has been detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States and Australia.[119]
Literature, art and symbolism
There is evidence of prehistoric bear worship, though this is disputed by archaeologists.[120] The prehistoric Finns,[121] Siberian peoples[122] and more recently Koreans considered the bear as the spirit of their forefathers.[123] There is evidence of bear worship in early Chinese and Ainu cultures.[124] In many Native American cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-emergence.[125] The image of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia, based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs.[126] Japanese folklore features the Onikuma, a "demon bear" that walks upright.[127] The Ainu of northern Japan, a different people from the Japanese, saw the bear instead as sacred; Hirasawa Byozan painted a scene in documentary style of a bear sacrifice in an Ainu temple, complete with offerings to the dead animal's spirit.[128]
In Korean mythology, a tiger and a bear prayed to Hwanung, the son of the Lord of Heaven, that they might become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort, ordering them to eat only this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger gave up after about twenty days and left the cave. However, the bear persevered and was transformed into a woman. The bear and the tiger are said to represent two tribes that sought the favor of the heavenly prince.[129] The bear-woman (Ungnyeo; 웅녀/熊女) was grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. However, she lacked a husband, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a "divine birch" tree (Hangul: 신단수; Hanja: 神檀樹; RR: shindansu) to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son named Dangun Wanggeom - who was the legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first ever Korean kingdom.[130]
Artio (Dea Artio in the Gallo-Roman religion) was a Celtic bear goddess. Evidence of her worship has notably been found at Bern, itself named for the bear. Her name is derived from the Celtic word for "bear", artos.[131] In ancient Greece, archaic cult of Artemis in bear form survived into Classical times at Brauron, where young Athenian girls passed an initiation right as arktai "she bears".[132] For Artemis and one of her nymphs as a she-bear, see the myth of Callisto.
The constellations of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the great and little bears, are named for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of Ptolemy.[b][3] The nearby star Arcturus means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations.[134] Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years since Paleolithic times, in the widespread Cosmic Hunt myths. These are found on both sides of the Bering land bridge, which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago.[135]
Pliny the Elder's Natural History (1st century AD) claims that "when first born, [bears] are shapeless masses of white flesh, a little larger than mice; their claws alone being prominent. The mother then licks them gradually into proper shape."[136] This belief was echoed by authors of bestiaries throughout the medieval period.[137]
Bears are mentioned in the Bible; the Second Book of Kings relates the story of the prophet Elisha calling on them to eat the youths who taunted him.[138] Legends of saints taming bears are common in the Alpine zone. In the arms of the bishopric of Freising, the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by St. Corbinian and made to carry his civilised baggage over the mountains. Bears similarly feature in the legends of St. Romedius, Saint Gall and Saint Columbanus. This recurrent motif was used by the Church as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over paganism.[139] In the Norse settlements of northern England during the 10th century, a type of "hogback" grave cover of a long narrow block of stone, with a shaped apex like the roof beam of a long house, is carved with a muzzled, thus Christianised, bear clasping each gable end, as in the church at Brompton, North Yorkshire and across the British Isles.[140]
Lāčplēsis, meaning "Bear-slayer", is a Latvian legendary hero who is said to have killed a bear by ripping its jaws apart with his bare hands. However, as revealed in the end of the long epic describing his life, Lāčplēsis' own mother had been a she-bear, and his superhuman strength resided in his bear ears. The modern Latvian military award Order of Lāčplēsis, called for the hero, is also known as The Order of the Bear-Slayer.
Bears are popular in children's stories, including Winnie the Pooh,[141] Paddington Bear,[142] Gentle Ben[143] and "The Brown Bear of Norway".[144] An early version of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears",[145] was published as "The Three Bears" in 1837 by Robert Southey, many times retold, and illustrated in 1918 by Arthur Rackham.[146] The cartoon character Yogi Bear has appeared in numerous comic books, animated television shows and films.[147][148] The Care Bears began as greeting cards in 1982, and were featured as toys, on clothing and in film.[149] Around the world, many children—and some adults—have teddy bears, stuffed toys in the form of bears, named after the American statesman Theodore Roosevelt when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an American black bear tied to a tree.[150]
Bears, like other animals, may symbolize nations. In 1911, the British satirical magazine Punch published a cartoon about the Anglo-Russian Entente by Leonard Raven-Hill in which the British lion watches as the Russian bear sits on the tail of the Persian cat.[151] The Russian Bear has been a common national personification for Russia from the 16th century onwards.[152] Smokey Bear has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his message "Only you can prevent forest fires".[153] In the UK, the bear and staff feature on the heraldic arms of the county of Warwickshire.[154] Bears appear in the canting arms of two cities, Bern and Berlin.[155]
Organizations
The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as the International Bear Association, and the Bear Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission, a part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature focus on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat Conservation.[156]
Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:
- Vital Ground, for the brown bear[157]
- Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear[158]
- Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear[159]
- Polar Bears International, for the polar bear[160]
- Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear[161]
- Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear[162]
- Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear[163]
- Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda[164]
See also
- List of fictional bears
- List of individual bears
Notes
- ^ Treating Pinnipeds[29] as marine mammals
- ^ Ptolemy named the constellations in Greek, Ἄρκτος μεγάλη (Arktos Megale) and Ἄρκτος μικρά (Arktos Mikra), the great and little bears.[133]
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- ^ Frasef, A. (2012). Feline Behaviour and Welfare. CABI. pp. 72–77. ISBN 978-1-84593-926-7.
- ^ David Prynn (2004). Amur tiger. Russian Nature Press. p. 115.
- ^ Seryodkin; et al. (2003). "Denning ecology of brown bears and Asiatic black bears in the Russian Far East". Ursus. 14 (2): 159.
- ^ Kawanishi, K.; Sunquist, M. E. (2004). "Conservation status of tigers in a primary rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia". Biological Conservation. 120: 329–344. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.005.
- ^ Crum, James M.; Nettles, Victor F.; Davidson, William R. (1978). "Studies on endoparasites of the black bear (Ursus americanus) in the southeastern United States". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 14 (2): 178–186. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-14.2.178.
- ^ Derocher, Andrew E. (2012). Polar Bears: A Complete Guide to Their Biology and Behavior. JHU Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-4214-0305-2.
- ^ Emergence and Control of Zoonotic Ortho- and Paramyxovirus Diseases. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 167. ISBN 978-2-7420-0392-1.
- ^ Williams, Elizabeth S.; Barker, Ian K. (2008). Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals. John Wiley & Sons. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-470-34481-1.
- ^ "Brown Bear – Threats Grizzlies: Found in 2% of their former range". WWF. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
- ^ Bacon, Heather (12 May 2008). "Implications of bear bile farming". Vet Times. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
- ^ a b "Keyword search: "Ursidae", Exact phrase, The entire database". IUCN. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
- ^ Pelton, Michael R.; Coley, Alex B.; Eason, Thomas H.; Doan Martinez; Diana L.; Pederson, Joel A.; van Manen, Frank T.; Weaver, Keith M. (1999). Chapter 8. American Black Bear Conservation Action Plan. IUCN. pp. 144–156. ISBN 978-2-8317-0462-3.
- ^ Kellert, Stephen (1994). "Public Attitudes toward Bears and Their Conservation". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 9 (1): 43–50. doi:10.2307/3872683. JSTOR 3872683.
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- ^ a b Goldstein, Isaac; Paisley, Susanna; Wallace, Robert; Jorgenson, Jeffrey P.; Cuesta, Francisc o; Castellanos, Armando (2006). "Andean bear–livestock conflicts: a review". Ursus. 17 (1): 8–15. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[8:ABCAR]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Fredriksson, Gabriella (2005). "Human–sun bear conflicts in East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo". Ursus. 16 (1): 130–137. doi:10.2192/1537-6176(2005)016[0130:HBCIEK]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Clark, Douglas (2003). "Polar Bear–Human Interactions in Canadian National Parks, 1986–2000" (PDF). Ursus. 14 (1): 65–71.
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- ^ Bonser, Wilfrid (1928). "The mythology of the Kalevala, with notes on bear-worship among the Finns". Folklore. 39 (4): 344–358. doi:10.1080/0015587x.1928.9716794. JSTOR 1255969.
- ^ Chaussonnet, Valerie (1995). Native Cultures of Alaska and Siberia. Washington, D.C.: Arctic Studies Center. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-56098-661-4.
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- ^ Ward and Kynaston, p. 17
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in the Meiji period .. handscroll of paintings of Ainu dwellings and customs .. The painter was Hirasawa Byozan and he titled the work Scenes of the Daily Life of the Ezo. His paintings are documentary, even anthropological in intent, for all their beauty.
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- ^ Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, 1985:263.
- ^ Ridpath, Ian. "Ptolemy's Almagest First printed edition, 1515". Retrieved 13 January 2017.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "Ἀρκτοῦρος". A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
- ^ Schaefer, Bradley E. (November 2006). "The Origin of the Greek Constellations: Was the Great Bear constellation named before hunter nomads first reached the Americas more than 13,000 years ago?". Scientific American, reviewed at Brown, Miland (30 October 2006). "The Origin of the Greek Constellations". World History Blog. Retrieved 9 April 2017; Berezkin, Yuri (2005). "The cosmic hunt: variants of a Siberian – North-American myth" (PDF). Folklore. 31: 79–100. doi:10.7592/FEJF2005.31.berezkin.
- ^ Pliny (1855). Bostock, John; Riley, Henry T., eds. Natural History. p. 8.4].
- ^ Badke, David. "The Medieval Bestiary: Bear". Retrieved 23 January 2017.
- ^ Second Book of Kings, 2:23–25
- ^ Pastoreau, Michel (2007). L'ours. Historie d'un roi déchu (in French). Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-021542-8.
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- ^ Kennedy, Patrick, ed. (1866). "The Brown Bear of Norway". Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts. Macmillan. pp. 57–67.
- ^ Elms, Alan C. (July–September 1977). ""The Three Bears": Four Interpretations". The Journal of American Folklore. 90 (357). JSTOR 539519.
- ^ Ashliman, D. L. (2004). Folk and Fairy Tales: A Handbook. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-0-313-32810-7.
- ^ Mallory, Michael (1998). Hanna-Barbera Cartoons. Hugh Lauter Levin. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-88363-108-9.
- ^ Browne, Ray B.; Browne, Pat (2001). The Guide to United States Popular Culture. Popular Press. p. 944. ISBN 978-0-87972-821-2.
- ^ Holmes, Elizabeth (9 February 2007). "Care Bears Receive a (Gentle) Makeover". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
- ^ Cannadine, David (1 February 2013). "A Point of View: The grownups with teddy bears". BBC. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
- ^ Raven-Hill, Leonard (13 December 1911). "As Between Friends". Punch. 141: 429. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ^ "What the West thinks about Russia is not necessarily true". Telegraph. 23 April 2009. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
- ^ "Forest Fire Prevention – Smokey Bear (1944–Present)". Ad Council. 1944-08-09. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
- ^ "Civic Heraldry of England and Wales-Warwickshire".
- ^ "The first Buddy Bears in Berlin". Buddy Bär Berlin. 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
- ^ "Vision and Mission". Bear Trust International. 2002–2012. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
- ^ "Vital Ground".
- ^ "Moon Bears".
- ^ "Black Bear Conservation Coalition".
- ^ "Polar Bears International".
- ^ "Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre".
- ^ "Wildlife SOS".
- ^ "Andean Bear Conservation Project".
- ^ "Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding".
Bibliography
- Ward, P.; Kynaston, S. (1995). Wild Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-3245-7.
Further reading
- Domico, Terry; Newman, Mark (1988). Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-1536-8.
- Faulkner, William (1942). The Bear. Curley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7927-0537-6.
- Brunner, Bernd (2007). Bears: A Brief History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12299-2.
External links
- Definitions from Wiktionary
- Media from Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Learning resources from Wikiversity
- Taxonomy from Wikispecies
- The Bears Project – Information, reports and images of European brown bears and other living species
- Western Wildlife Outreach – Information on the history, biology, and conservation of North American Grizzly Bears and Black Bears
- The Bear Book and Curriculum Guide – a compilation of stories about all eight species of bears worldwide, including STEM lessons rooted in bear research, ecology, and conservation
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UpToDate Contents
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- 1. 代理出産 surrogate pregnancy
- 2. T細胞受容体の遺伝学 t cell receptor genetics
- 3. 小児における股関節痛の概要 overview of hip pain in childhood
- 4. 非疲労骨折の足舟状骨骨折 non stress fractures of the tarsal foot navicular
- 5. 小児または骨格が未成熟な思春期における急性膝関節痛に対するアプローチ approach to acute knee pain and injury in children and skeletally immature adolescents
英文文献
- Influence of different polymers on crystallization tendency and dissolution behavior of cilnidipine in solid dispersions.
- Chen C1, Xie X, Li Y, Zhou C, Song Y, Yan Z, Yang X.Author information 1Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University , Nanjing , PR China and.AbstractAbstract Context: Cilnidipine (CN) is a novel dihydropyridine calcium antagonist that is practically insoluble in aqueous media and exhibits a low oral bioavailability or limited clinical efficacy. Objective: This study investigated the effects of three commercial and chemically diverse polymers - PVP, PVP/VA and Soluplus - on crystallization tendency and in vitro dissolution profiles of CN in order to determine an optimum carrier for composing the preferred solid dispersion (SD) of CN. Methods: All these co-evaporated systems were characterized up to 3 months by thermoanalytical (DSC), crystallographic (POM, PXRD), microscopic (SEM) and spectroscopic (FTIR) techniques. Results: The results showed that the polymers could be sorted by their effects of inhibiting CN crystallization in the ascending order: Soluplus, PVP/VA, PVP. The sequence was in accordance with that of the strength of drug-polymer hydrogen bonds revealed by FTIR spectra. It could be ascribed to relative hydrogen-bonding acceptor strengths of N-vinylpyrrolidone moiety in the polymer molecules. On the other hand, all the SDs showed enhanced dissolution profiles compared to pure CN alone. On their effects of enhancing CN dissolution, the polymers could be sorted in the descending order: Soluplus, PVP, PVP/VA. Conclusions: It implied that the dissolution behavior of CN could bear a close relationship to both hydration capacity and hydrogen-bonding interaction tendency of moieties of the polymers. It might suggest an optimal formulation for CN comprising both PVP and Soluplus.
- Drug development and industrial pharmacy.Drug Dev Ind Pharm.2014 Apr;40(4):441-51. doi: 10.3109/03639045.2013.767825. Epub 2013 Apr 24.
- Abstract Context: Cilnidipine (CN) is a novel dihydropyridine calcium antagonist that is practically insoluble in aqueous media and exhibits a low oral bioavailability or limited clinical efficacy. Objective: This study investigated the effects of three commercial and chemically diverse polymers - P
- PMID 23614831
- Early complications of surgery in operative treatment of ankle fractures in those over 60: A review of 186 cases.
- Zaghloul A1, Haddad B2, Barksfield R3, Davis B3.Author information 1West Suffolk Hospital, Hardwick Lane Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk IP33 2QZ, UK; Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UY, UK.2West Suffolk Hospital, Hardwick Lane Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk IP33 2QZ, UK; University College London, Institute of Orthopaedic and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital Stanmore, Middlesex HA7 4LP, UK. Electronic address: behrooz.haddad@gmail.com.3Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UY, UK.AbstractINTRODUCTION: Ankle fractures are among the most common injuries of the lower extremity encountered by orthopaedic surgeons. With increasing population age and osteoporosis, the prevalence of these fractures is expected to increase. The aim of this study was to evaluate complications and the need for revision surgery after the surgical treatment of ankle fractures in patients over 60 years of age. We report the outcomes of 186 consecutive patients who underwent operative treatment for rotational ankle fractures in our institution from 2007 to 2010.
- Injury.Injury.2014 Apr;45(4):780-3. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2013.11.008. Epub 2013 Nov 23.
- INTRODUCTION: Ankle fractures are among the most common injuries of the lower extremity encountered by orthopaedic surgeons. With increasing population age and osteoporosis, the prevalence of these fractures is expected to increase. The aim of this study was to evaluate complications and the need fo
- PMID 24388418
- APOBEC3 Multimerization Correlates with HIV-1 Packaging and Restriction Activity in Living Cells.
- Li J1, Chen Y1, Li M2, Carpenter MA2, McDougle RM2, Luengas EM2, Macdonald PJ3, Harris RS2, Mueller JD4.Author information 1School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, 116 Church Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, 515 Delaware Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.2Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, 515 Delaware Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, 321 Church Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.3Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 312 Church Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.4School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, 116 Church Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, 515 Delaware Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 312 Church Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA. Electronic address: Mueller@physics.umn.edu.AbstractAPOBEC3G belongs to a family of DNA cytosine deaminases that are involved in the restriction of a broad number of retroviruses including human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Prior studies have identified two distinct mechanistic steps in Vif-deficient HIV-1 restriction: packaging into virions and deaminating viral cDNA. APOBEC3A, for example, although highly active, is not packaged and is therefore not restrictive. APOBEC3G, on the other hand, although having weaker enzymatic activity, is packaged into virions and is strongly restrictive. Although a number of studies have described the propensity for APOBEC3 oligomerization, its relevance to HIV-1 restriction remains unclear. Here, we address this problem by examining APOBEC3 oligomerization in living cells using molecular brightness analysis. We find that APOBEC3G forms high-order multimers as a function of protein concentration. In contrast, APOBEC3A, APOBEC3C and APOBEC2 are monomers at all tested concentrations. Among other members of the APOBEC3 family, we show that the multimerization propensities of APOBEC3B, APOBEC3D, APOBEC3F and APOBEC3H (haplotype II) bear more resemblance to APOBEC3G than to APOBEC3A/3C/2. Prior studies have shown that all of these multimerizing APOBEC3 proteins, but not the monomeric family members, have the capacity to package into HIV-1 particles and restrict viral infectivity. This correlation between oligomerization and restriction is further evidenced by two different APOBEC3G mutants, which are each compromised for multimerization, packaging and HIV-1 restriction. Overall, our results imply that multimerization of APOBEC3 proteins may be related to the packaging mechanism and ultimately to virus restriction.
- Journal of molecular biology.J Mol Biol.2014 Mar 20;426(6):1296-307. doi: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.12.014. Epub 2013 Dec 17.
- APOBEC3G belongs to a family of DNA cytosine deaminases that are involved in the restriction of a broad number of retroviruses including human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Prior studies have identified two distinct mechanistic steps in Vif-deficient HIV-1 restriction: packaging into virion
- PMID 24361275
- An efficient strategy for the synthesis of polysubstituted chromeno[4,3-b]pyrrolidine derivatives.
- Tian L1, Xu GQ, Li YH, Liang YM, Xu PF.Author information 1State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China. liangym@lzu.edu.cn xupf@lzu.edu.cn.AbstractA powerful cascade reaction was developed for the synthesis of chromeno[4,3-b]pyrrolidines with high yields and excellent stereoselectivities. This efficient cascade reaction expeditiously established two fused rings which bear three contiguous stereogenic centers including one quaternary stereocenter in a single operation with low catalyst loading under mild conditions.
- Chemical communications (Cambridge, England).Chem Commun (Camb).2014 Mar 7;50(19):2428-30. doi: 10.1039/c3cc49504c. Epub 2014 Jan 22.
- A powerful cascade reaction was developed for the synthesis of chromeno[4,3-b]pyrrolidines with high yields and excellent stereoselectivities. This efficient cascade reaction expeditiously established two fused rings which bear three contiguous stereogenic centers including one quaternary stereocent
- PMID 24448424
和文文献
- Essence of United States Forces in Japan (USFJ)
- 瀬端 孝夫,SEBATA Takao
- 研究紀要 14, 151-161, 2014-01-15
- … While many host countries pay little to or some even receive money from the United States for hosting the United States forces, Japan is very generous to bear the cost to maintain USFJ up to 75% in spite of the fact that the Japanese Government suffers from huge budget deficit. …
- NAID 120005366534
- Polar bear predatory behaviour reveals seascape distribution of ringed seal lairs
- Pilfold Nicholas W.,Derocher Andrew E.,Stirling Ian [他]
- Population Ecology 56(1), 129-138, 2014-01
- NAID 40019930170
- 奨励賞受賞者による研究紹介 第11回受賞(2013年度) ツキノワグマの長期研究とこれからの姿 : 採食生態を中心にして
- 小池 伸介
- 哺乳類科学 53(2), 369-371, 2013-12
- NAID 40019937158
- 2050年までのエネルギーパスを考える : 過去を知るおとなたちは、未来を担うこどもたちに、何を伝えていくのか?
- 吉田 浄
- エネルギー環境教育研究 8(1), 1-3, 2013-12
- NAID 40019932072
関連画像








★リンクテーブル★
リンク元 | 「stand」「have」「tolerate」「puerperal」「Ailuropoda」 |
拡張検索 | 「bearded vulture」「color bearer」「bearded wheatgrass」「nut-bearing」 |
関連記事 | 「be」「bearing」「beard」 |
「stand」
- vt.
- 立つ、起立する。
- 立ち止まる。(自動車などが)静止したままである、動かない
- もとのままである、持ちこたえる、耐える。一致する、合う。
- it stands to reason that ~ それは~という理由と一致する
- 関
- bear、canopy、community、endure、lie、locate、location、loci、locus、map、position、rank、resist、resistance、resistant、sit、situated、situation、standing、tolerate、topo、withstand
WordNet [license wordnet]
「remain inactive or immobile; "standing water"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「a growth of similar plants (usually trees) in a particular area; "they cut down a stand of trees"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「the position where a thing or person stands」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「〈人・動物が〉『立つ』,立っている / (すわっていたのが)『立ち上がる』,起立する《+『up』》 / 〈物が〉(ある場所に)『立っている』,立てかけてある,置かれている / 《副詞[句]を伴って》『位置する』ある(進行形にできない) / 〈人物が〉状態(関係)にある / 〈人が〉(…に)(賛成・反対の)態度をとる,主張をする《+『for』(『against』)+『名』》 / 《『stand』+『名』(『形』)〈補〉》〈身長・得点・温度・順位などが〉(…で)ある / 立ち止まる;〈車・機械などが〉停止している / 〈主張などが〉変わらないでいる,ぐらつかない;〈規則などが〉有効である(進行形にできない) / 〈水などが〉よどむ;〈涙・汗などが〉たまる / 《副詞[句]を伴って》(船が)針路をとる / …‘を'『立てる』,立たせる,立てかける;…‘を'置く,すえる / …‘に'『立ち向かう』;…‘に'ひるまない;…‘を'守り通す / 《追例否定文で》…‘に'『耐える』,‘を'がまんする(進行形にできない) / 〈検査など〉‘を'受ける;〈運命など〉‘に'従う / 《話》…‘を'おごる / 〈任務など〉‘を'務める / 『立つこと;立ち止まること』,停止 / 防御,抵抗 / 立場,(明確な)態度,意見 / 位置,場所 / 《しばしば複合語を作って》『台』,…立て,…掛け / 《米》=witness stand / 『屋台店』,売店 / (タクシー・バスなどの)駐車場・乗り場 / 《通例the stands》『観覧席』,さじき,スタンド / (同一の地域・種類・樹齢の)立ち木,樹木,草木,作物 / (巡業興行団の)巡業[先],巡回[地]」WordNet [license wordnet]
「a defensive effort; "the army made a final stand at the Rhone"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「a small table for holding articles of various kinds; "a bedside stand"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「a stop made by a touring musical or theatrical group to give a performance; "a one-night stand"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「tiered seats consisting of a structure (often made of wood) where people can sit to watch an event (game or parade)」WordNet [license wordnet]
「hold one''s ground; maintain a position; be steadfast or upright; "I am standing my ground and won''t give in!"」- 同
- remain firm
WordNet [license wordnet]
「be standing; be upright; "We had to stand for the entire performance!"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「put into an upright position; "Can you stand the bookshelf up?"」- 同
- stand up, place upright
WordNet [license wordnet]
「be available for stud services; "male domestic animals such as stallions serve selected females"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「be in effect; be or remain in force; "The law stands!"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「be in some specified state or condition; "I stand corrected"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「be tall; have a height of; copula; "She stands 6 feet tall"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have or maintain a position or stand on an issue; "Where do you stand on the War?"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「occupy a place or location, also metaphorically; "We stand on common ground"」
「have」
- v.
- 所有する、有する、(使役)させる
- 関
- bear、hold、own、possess、possession
WordNet [license wordnet]
「have left; "I have two years left"; "I don''t have any money left"; "They have two more years before they retire"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「suffer from; be ill with; "She has arthritis"」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「(また《話》『have got』)〈物〉‘を'『持っている』,所有している(進行形にできない)・(また《話》『have got』)〈親類・友人など〉‘が'『いる』,‘を'持っている,〈召使など〉‘を'かかえている;〈動物〉‘を'飼っている(進行形にできない) ・(また《話》『have got』)(特質・付属物として)…‘を'『備えている』,‘が'ある(進行形にできない) ・(また《話》『have got』)〈感情・意見など〉‘を'持つ,抱く(進行形にできない) ・《『have to』do》(また《話》『have got to』do)…『しなければならない』;《不定文で》…する必要がある・《『have to be』…》…に違いない・〈ある状態〉‘を'経験する,〈病気〉‘に'かかる / …‘を'食べる,飲む,〈たばこ〉‘を'吸う・《動作を表す名詞を目的語にして》《話》〈ある動作・行為〉‘を'する,行う・《『have』+『名』〈人〉+do》《しばしばwill, wouldと共に》〈人〉‘に'(…)させる,してもらう,される / 《『have』+『名』+『過分』》…‘を'(…)させる,される,してもらう・《+『have』+『名』+『形』(『名』,『過分』,do『ing』)〈補〉》…‘を'(…の)状態に保つ,(…の)ままにしておく(進行形にできない) / …‘を'得る,もらう,受ける(進行形にできない) ・〈人・動物が〉〈子〉‘を'産む,もうける・《通例否定文で》…‘を'許す,認める・(財産・社会的地位などを)持っている人;(資源・核兵器を)持っている国」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「《現在完了》《have(has)+過去分詞》・《現在における動作の完了・結果》…『した』,…『してしまった』・《現在までの経験》…『したことがある』・《現在までの継続》(ずっと)…『している』,…『してきた』・《時・条件の副詞節で未来完了に代えて》…してしまう・《過去完了》《had+過去分詞》・《未来完了》《will(shall) have +過去分詞》・《未来のある時における動作の完了・結果》…『して』[『しまって』]『いるだろう』・《未来のある時までの経験》…『したことになる』・《未来のある時までの継続》…『していることになる』・《完了形不定詞》・《述語動詞の表す時より前に事柄を表す》・《期待・意図・願望・予定などを表す動詞の過去形に付いて実現されなかった事柄を表す》・《完了形分詞または動名詞》《述語動詞の表す時までに完了した事柄またはその結果を表す》」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have as a feature; "This restaurant features the most famous chefs in France"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「achieve a point or goal; "Nicklaus had a 70"; "The Brazilian team got 4 goals"; "She made 29 points that day"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have or possess, either in a concrete or an abstract sense; "She has $1,000 in the bank"; "He has got two beautiful daughters"; "She holds a Master''s degree from Harvard"」- 同
- have got, hold
WordNet [license wordnet]
「be confronted with; "What do we have here?"; "Now we have a fine mess"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have a personal or business relationship with someone; "have a postdoc"; "have an assistant"; "have a lover"」
「tolerate」
- v.
WordNet [license wordnet]
「recognize and respect (rights and beliefs of others); "We must tolerate the religions of others"」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「…‘に'『寛大な態度をとる』,‘を'黙認する / …‘を'『がまんする』,耐える / 〈薬品・毒物など〉‘に'耐性がある」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have a tolerance for a poison or strong drug or pathogen or environmental condition; "The patient does not tolerate the anti-inflammatory drugs we gave him"」「puerperal」
- adj.
- [限定](産科)出産/分娩の。子宮収縮期の/に関連した/におこる。産床の、産褥の
- 語源:ラテン語 puer child + pario to bear
- 関
- (n.)puerperium (n. pl.)puerperia (医)産床期、産褥期
- ex.
WordNet [license wordnet]
「relating to or connected with or occurring at the time of childbirth or shortly following, or to the woman who has just given birth」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「出産の,分娩(ぶんべん)の;産婦の」
「Ailuropoda」
ジャイアントパンダ属、アイルロ・ダ属、Ailuropoda属
WordNet [license wordnet]
「only the giant panda: in some classifications considered a genus of the separate family Ailuropodidae」- 同
- genus Ailuropoda
「bearded vulture」
WordNet [license wordnet]
「the largest Eurasian bird of prey; having black feathers hanging around the bill」- 同
- lammergeier, lammergeyer, Gypaetus barbatus
「color bearer」
WordNet [license wordnet]
「the soldier who carries the standard of the unit in military parades or in battle」
「bearded wheatgrass」
WordNet [license wordnet]
「a wheatgrass with straight terminal awns on the flowering glumes」- 同
- Agropyron subsecundum
「nut-bearing」
WordNet [license wordnet]
「(of shrubs or trees) producing nuts」
「be」
WordNet [license wordnet]
「to remain unmolested, undisturbed, or uninterrupted -- used only in infinitive form; "let her be"」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「《連結語として補語を伴なって…『である』,…だ,…です / 《位置・場所を表す語句を伴って》(…に)『ある』,いる(occupy a place or situation) / 〈物事が〉『存在する』,ある(exist);〈生物が〉生存する,生きている(live) / 行われる,起こる,発生する(take place, occur) / 存続する,そのままでいる(remain as before) / 《『be to』 do》 / …する予定である,…することになっている / …すべきだ / 《受動態の不定詞を伴って》…できる / 《命令》…するのだ / 《条件節に》…する意図がある / 《『if…were to』 do》…するとしたなら / 《『be』 do『ing』》《進行形》 / 《進行中の動作》…している,しつつある / 《近い未来》…しようとしている,するつもり / 《動作の反復》(いつも)…している / 《『be』+『他動詞の過去分詞』》《受動態》…される,されている / 《『be』+『自動詞の過去分詞』》《完了形》…した[状態にある]」WordNet [license wordnet]
「work in a specific place, with a specific subject, or in a specific function; "He is a herpetologist"; "She is our resident philosopher"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have life, be alive; "Our great leader is no more"; "My grandfather lived until the end of war"」- 同
- live
WordNet [license wordnet]
「be identical to; be someone or something; "The president of the company is John Smith"; "This is my house"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「happen, occur, take place; "I lost my wallet; this was during the visit to my parents'' house"; "There were two hundred people at his funeral"; "There was a lot of noise in the kitchen"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「have the quality of being; (copula, used with an adjective or a predicate noun); "John is rich"; "This is not a good answer"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「occupy a certain position or area; be somewhere; "Where is my umbrella?" "The toolshed is in the back"; "What is behind this behavior?"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「spend or use time; "I may be an hour"」
「bearing」
- n.
- 関
- associate、association、attach、attitude、connection、correlate、correlation、implication、link、manner、pertinent、reference、relate、relation、relationship、relative、relevance、relevant、stance
WordNet [license wordnet]
「relevant relation or interconnection; "those issues have no bearing on our situation"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「(of a structural member) withstanding a weight or strain」WordNet [license wordnet]
「a rotating support placed between moving parts to allow them to move easily」WordNet [license wordnet]
「the direction or path along which something moves or along which it lies」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「〈U〉『態度』,ふるまい / 〈C〉〈U〉(…に対する)『関係』,関連《+『on』(『upon』)+『名』》 / 〈U〉忍耐,がまん / 〈C〉《複数形で》『方角』,方位 / 〈U〉子を産むこと,出産;実を結ぶこと / 《複数形で》(機械の)軸受け,ベアリング」
「beard」
WordNet [license wordnet]
「a tuft or growth of hairs or bristles on certain plants such as iris or grasses」WordNet [license wordnet]
「go along the rim, like a beard around the chin; "Houses bearded the top of the heights"」WordNet [license wordnet]
「hairy growth on or near the face of certain mammals」WordNet [license wordnet]
「the hair growing on the lower part of a man''s face」- 同
- face fungus, whiskers
WordNet [license wordnet]
「a person who diverts suspicion from someone (especially a woman who accompanies a male homosexual in order to conceal his homosexuality)」PrepTutorEJDIC [license prepejdic]
「〈C〉(人の)『あごひげ』 / (動物の)あごひげ;(一般に)ひげ状のもの / …‘に'勇敢に立ち向かう」