亜鉛　　　

WordNet

coat or cover with zinc
a bluish-white lustrous metallic element; brittle at ordinary temperatures but malleable when heated; used in a wide variety of alloys and in galvanizing iron; it occurs naturally as zinc sulphide in zinc blende (同)Zn, atomic number 30

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亜鉛(金属元素;化学記号は Zn)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/01/26 01:51:58」(JST)

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This article is about the metallic element. For other uses, see Zinc (disambiguation).

Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).

Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century BC in Judea^[1] and by the 7th century BC in Ancient Greece.^[2] Zinc metal was not produced in large scale until the 12th century in India, while the metal was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to 6th Century BC.^[3] To date the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, Rajasthan as early as 9th century AD, when distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.^[4] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow."

The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is normally given credit for discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings, and alloys, such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory.

Zinc is an essential mineral of "exceptional biologic and public health importance".^[5] Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases.^[6] In children it causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000 children worldwide per year.^[5] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans.^[7] Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency.

1 Characteristics
- 1.1 Physical properties
- 1.2 Occurrence
- 1.3 Isotopes
2 Compounds and chemistry
- 2.1 Reactivity
- 2.2 Zinc(I) compounds
- 2.3 Zinc (II) compounds
3 History
- 3.1 Ancient use
- 3.2 Early studies and naming
- 3.3 Isolation
- 3.4 Later work
4 Production
- 4.1 Mining and processing
- 4.2 Environmental impact
5 Applications
- 5.1 Anti-corrosion and batteries
- 5.2 Alloys
- 5.3 Other industrial uses
- 5.4 Dietary supplement
- 5.5 Zinc lozenges and the common cold
- 5.6 Topical use
- 5.7 Organic chemistry
6 Biological role
- 6.1 Enzymes
- 6.2 Other proteins
- 6.3 Dietary intake
- 6.4 Deficiency
7 Soil remediation
- 7.1 Agriculture
8 Precautions
- 8.1 Toxicity
- 8.2 Poisoning
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links

Characteristics

Physical properties

Zinc, also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter,^[8] is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal,^[9] though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.^[10] It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure.^[11]

The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C.^[9]^[10] Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating.^[12] Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity.^[9] For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.5 °C, 787.1 F) and boiling points (907 °C).^[13] Its melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium.^[13]

Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium and sodium.^[14] While neither zinc nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy ZrZn
2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.^[9]

Occurrence

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of zinc

Five isotopes of zinc occur in nature. ⁶⁴Zn is the most abundant isotope (48.63% natural abundance).^[25] This isotope has such a long half-life, at 4.3×10¹⁸ a,^[26] that its radioactivity can be ignored.^[27] Similarly, 70
Zn (0.6%), with a half-life of 1.3×10¹⁶ a is not usually considered to be radioactive. The other isotopes found in nature are 66
Zn (28%), 67
Zn (4%) and 68
Zn (19%).

Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized. 65
Zn, which has a half-life of 243.66 days, is the most long-lived radioisotope, followed by 72
Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours.^[25] Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers. ^69mZn has the longest half-life, 13.76 h.^[25] The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray. 61
Zn has three excited states and 73
Zn has two.^[28] The isotopes 65
Zn, 71
Zn, 77
Zn and 78
Zn each have only one excited state.^[25]

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66 is electron capture. The decay product resulting from electron capture is an isotope of copper.^[25]

n
30Zn + e− → n
29Cu

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66 is beta decay (β^–), which produces an isotope of gallium.^[25]

n
30Zn → n
31Ga + e− + ν
e

Compounds and chemistry

Main article: Compounds of zinc

Reactivity

Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d¹⁰4s² and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent.^[29] The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate, Zn
5(OH)
6(CO₃)
2, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.^[30] This layer helps prevent further reaction with air and water.

Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide.^[31] Zinc reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.^[32] Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids.^[31] Strong acids, such as hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, can remove the passivating layer and subsequent reaction with water releases hydrogen gas.^[31]

The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this oxidation state are formed the outer shell s electrons are lost, which yields a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d¹⁰.^[33] In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H
2O)₆]2+
is the predominant species.^[34] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn
2Cl
2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state.^[31] No compounds of zinc in oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known.^[35] Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.^[36]

Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals nickel and copper, though it has a filled d-shell, so its compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless.^[37] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical. Because of this some of their salts have the same crystal structure^[38] and in circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor zinc and magnesium chemistries have much in common.^[31] Otherwise there is little similarity. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and it forms much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors.^[37] Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate although 5-coordinate complexes are known.^[31]

Zinc(I) compounds

Zinc(I) compounds are rare, and requires bulky ligands to stabilize the low oxidation state. Most zinc(I) compounds contains formally the [Zn₂]²⁺ core, which is analogous to the [Hg₂]²⁺ dimeric cation present in mercury(I) compounds. The diamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I) compound containing the Zn—Zn bond, (η⁵-C₅Me₅)₂Zn₂, is also the first dimetallocene. The [Zn₂]²⁺ ion rapidly disproportionates into zinc metal and zinc(II), and has only been obtained as a yellow glass formed by cooling a solution of metallic zinc in molten ZnCl₂.^[39]

Zinc (II) compounds

Zinc acetate

Zinc chloride

Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions.^[31] The other chalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe) have varied applications in electronics and optics.^[40] Pnictogenides (Zn
3N
2, Zn
3P
2, Zn
3As
2 and Zn
3Sb
2),^[41]^[42] the peroxide (ZnO
2), the hydride (ZnH
2), and the carbide (ZnC
2) are also known.^[43] Of the four halides, ZnF
2 has the most ionic character, whereas the others (ZnCl
2, ZnBr
2, and ZnI
2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character.^[44]

In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+
ions, the hydroxide Zn(OH)
2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates ([Zn(OH)₄]2−
).^[31] The nitrate Zn(NO₃)
2, chlorate Zn(ClO₃)
2, sulfate ZnSO
4, phosphate Zn
3(PO₄)
2, molybdate ZnMoO
4, cyanide Zn(CN)
2, arsenite Zn(AsO₂)
2, arsenate Zn(AsO₄)
2·8H
2O and the chromate ZnCrO
4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc.^[45]^[46] One of the simplest examples of an organic compound of zinc is the acetate (Zn(O
2CCH₃)
2).

Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc–carbon covalent bonds. Diethylzinc ((C
2H₅)
2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide, and was the first compound known to contain a metal–carbon sigma bond.^[47]

History

Ancient use

Late Roman brass bucket – the Hemmoorer Eimer from Warstade, Germany, second to third century AD

Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass many centuries prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc.^[1] Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC but few varieties were made.^[2] Ornaments made of alloys that contain 80–90% zinc with lead, iron, antimony, and other metals making up the remainder, have been found that are 2500 years old.^[16] A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site.^[48]

The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes, and were found aboard the roman ship Relitto del Pozzino, which wrecked in 140 BC.^[49]^[50]

The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.^[51] They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible.^[51] The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape and was used in weaponry.^[52] Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.^[53]

Strabo, in a passage taken from an earlier writer of the 4th century BC,^[who?] mentions "drops of false silver", which when mixed with copper make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc by-product of smelting sulfide ores.^[54] Zinc in such remnants in melting ovens was usually discarded, as it was thought to be worthless.^[55] The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc.^[56]

The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written in 500 BC or before,^{[dubious – discuss]} mentions a metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan, thought to be zinc oxide.^[57] Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active since the Mauryan period. The smelting of metallic zinc here however appears to have begun around the 12th century AD.^[58]^[59] One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries.^[18] Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period.^[58] The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in approximately the 13th century AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores; one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes.^[59]

Early studies and naming

Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala and written about the year 1374.^[60] Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India.^[9]^[61] The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century.^[61]

Various alchemical symbols attributed to the element zinc

Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser. Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica, Latin for "philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts while others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album.^[62]

The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus, a Swiss-born German alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his book Liber Mineralium II, in the 16th century.^[61]^[63] The word is probably derived from the German zinke, and supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged" (metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance).^[64] Zink could also imply "tin-like" because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin.^[65] Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone.^[66] The metal was also called Indian tin, tutanego, calamine, and spinter.^[16]

German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called "calay" of Malabar from a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in 1596.^[67] Libavius described the properties of the sample, which may have been zinc. Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries,^[61] but was at times very expensive.^{[note 1]}

Isolation

Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is given credit for first isolating pure zinc

The isolation of metallic zinc in the West may have been achieved independently by several people. Postlewayt's Universal Dictionary, a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then.^[59]^[68]

Flemish metallurgist P.M. de Respour reported that he extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668.^[18] By the start of the 18th century, Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore being smelted.^[18] In Britain, John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc, probably at Landore, prior to his bankruptcy in 1726.^[69]

In 1738, William Champion patented in Great Britain a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort style smelter.^[70] His technology was somewhat similar to that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan but there is no evidence that he visited the Orient.^[71] Champion's process was used through 1851.^[61]

German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for discovering pure metallic zinc even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab distilled zinc from calamine four years before.^[61] In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal.^[55] This procedure became commercially practical by 1752.^[72]

Later work

Galvanization was named after Luigi Galvani.

William Champion's brother, John, patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process.^[16] Prior to this only calamine could be used to produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter.^[73] Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium, which processed even more zinc.^[61] Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog's leg to twitch.^[74] He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect "animal electricity".^[75] The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani and these discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries, galvanization and cathodic protection.^[75]

Galvani's friend, Alessandro Volta, continued researching this effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800.^[74] The basic unit of Volta's pile was a simplified galvanic cell, which is made of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc connected to each other externally and separated by an electrolyte. These were stacked in series to make the Voltaic cell, which in turn produced electricity by directing electrons from the zinc to the copper and allowing the zinc to corrode.^[74]

The non-magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition.^[76] This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site.^[76] The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc-containing enzyme in 1955.^[76]

Production

Mining and processing

Top zinc output countries 2010^[19]
Rank	Country	Tonnes
1	China	3,500,000
2	Peru	1,520,000
3	Australia	1,450,000
4	India	750,000
5	United States	720,000
6	Canada	670,000

Main articles: Zinc mining and Zinc smelting

See also: List of countries by zinc production

Percentage of zinc output in 2006 by countries^[77]

World production trend

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper with an annual production of about 12 million tonnes.^[19] The world's largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore.^[78] About 70% of the world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.^[79] Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is 99.995% pure.^[80]

Worldwide, 95% of the zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which sphalerite ZnS is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and iron.^[81] There are zinc mines throughout the world, with the main mining areas being China, Australia and Peru. China produced 29% of the global zinc output in 2010.^[19]

Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.^[82] After grinding the ore, froth flotation, which selectively separates minerals from gangue by taking advantage of differences in their hydrophobicity, is used to get an ore concentrate.^[82] A final concentration of zinc of about 50% is reached by this process with the remainder of the concentrate being sulfur (32%), iron (13%), and SiO
2 (5%).^[82]

Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate produced during processing to zinc oxide:^[81]

2 ZnS + 3 O
2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO
2

The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid, which is necessary for the leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate, zinc silicate or zinc spinel, like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia are used for zinc production the roasting can be omitted.^[83]

For further processing two basic methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning. Pyrometallurgy processing reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into the metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor.^[84] The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser.^[81] The below set of equations demonstrate this process:^[81]

2 ZnO + C → 2 Zn + CO
2

ZnO + CO → Zn + CO
2

Electrowinning processing leaches zinc from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid:^[85]

ZnO + H
2SO
4 → ZnSO
4 + H
2O

After this step electrolysis is used to produce zinc metal.^[81]

2 ZnSO
4 + 2 H
2O → 2 Zn + 2 H
2SO
4 + O
2

The sulfuric acid regenerated is recycled to the leaching step.

Environmental impact

The production for sulfidic zinc ores produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues of process also contain significant amounts of heavy metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882.^[86] The dumps of the past mining operations leach significant amounts of zinc and cadmium, and, as a result, the sediments of the Geul River contain significant amounts of heavy metals.^[86] About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year. After increasing 10-fold from 1850, zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline. Anthropogenic and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1.^[87]

Levels of zinc in rivers flowing through industrial or mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm.^[88] Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this; treatment along the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.^[88] Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood.^[89]

Historically responsible for high heavy metal levels in the Derwent River,^[90] the zinc works at Lutana is the largest exporter in Tasmania, generating 2.5% of the state's GDP, and producing over 250 thousand tonnes of zinc per year.^[91]

Soils contaminated with zinc through the mining of zinc-containing ores, refining, or where zinc-containing sludge is used as fertilizer, can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram of dry soil. Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese. Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180,000 ppm (18%) have been recorded in some soil samples.^[88]

Applications

Major applications of zinc include (numbers are given for the US)^[92]

Galvanizing (55%)
Alloys (21%)
Brass and bronze (16%)
Miscellaneous (8%)

Anti-corrosion and batteries

Hot-dip handrail galvanized crystalline surface

The metal is most commonly used as an anti-corrosion agent.^[93] Galvanization, which is the coating of iron or steel to protect the metals against corrosion, is the most familiar form of using zinc in this way. In 2009 in the United States, 55% or 893 thousand tonnes of the zinc metal was used for galvanization.^[92]

Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away.^[94] A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate (Zn
5(OH)
6(CO
3)
2) forms as the zinc corrodes.^[95] This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away.^[95] The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car bodies.^[15]

The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP). For example, cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe.^[95] Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline.^[95]^{[note 2]} Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water from corrosion.^[96] A zinc disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays unattacked.^[94] Other similar uses include a plug of zinc attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship.

With a standard electrode potential (SEP) of −0.76 volts, zinc is used as an anode material for batteries. (More reactive lithium (SEP −3.04 V) is used for anodes in lithium batteries ). Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and sheets of zinc metal form the cases for and act as anodes in zinc–carbon batteries.^[97]^[98] Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc-air battery/fuel cell.^[99]^[100]^[101]

Alloys

A widely used alloy which contains zinc is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass.^[95] Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper and has superior corrosion resistance.^[95] These properties make it useful in communication equipment, hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.^[95]

Cast brass microstructure at magnification 400x

Other widely used alloys that contain zinc include nickel silver, typewriter metal, soft and aluminium solder, and commercial bronze.^[9] Zinc is also used in contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead/tin alloy in pipes.^[102] Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminium find limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Zinc is the primary metal used in making American one cent coins since 1982.^[103] The zinc core is coated with a thin layer of copper to give the impression of a copper coin. In 1994, 33,200 tonnes (36,600 short tons) of zinc were used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United States.^[104]

Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries.^[9] These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak.^[105] An example of this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes the production of small and intricate shapes possible. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and therefore fast assembly is possible.^[9]^[106] Another alloy, marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic.^[9]^[107] This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement.^[9]

Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive.^[108] In building facades, roofs or other applications in which zinc is used as sheet metal and for methods such as deep drawing, roll forming or bending, zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used.^[109] Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these kinds of manufacturing processes.^[109]

As a dense, inexpensive, easily worked material, zinc is used as a lead replacement. In the wake of lead concerns, zinc appears in weights for various applications ranging from fishing^[110] to tire balances and flywheels.^[111]

Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of small sensing devices.^[112] These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons.^[112] When placed behind an absorbing mask, the CZT sensor array can also be used to determine the direction of the rays.^[112]

Other industrial uses

Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in paints.

Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States (2009), is consumed in the form of zinc compounds;^[92] a variety of which are used industrially. Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints, and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber. It is also used as a heat disperser for the rubber and acts to protect its polymers from ultraviolet radiation (the same UV protection is conferred to plastics containing zinc oxide).^[15] The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying products.^[113] The zinc zinc-oxide cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide for hydrogen production.^[114]

Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant^[115] and can be used as a wood preservative.^[116] It is also used to make other chemicals.^[115] Zinc methyl (Zn(CH₃)
2) is used in a number of organic syntheses.^[117] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television screens, and luminous paints.^[118] Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum.^[119] Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments.^[115] Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints.^[120]

Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets.^[121] When a compressed mixture of 70% zinc and 30% sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical reaction.^[121] This produces zinc sulfide, together with large amounts of hot gas, heat, and light.^[121] Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars.^[122]

64
Zn, the most abundant isotope of zinc, is very susceptible to neutron activation, being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65
Zn, which has a half-life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation. Because of this, Zinc Oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti-corrosion agent is depleted of 64
Zn before use, this is called depleted zinc oxide. For the same reason, zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material).^[123] A jacket of isotopically enriched 64
Zn would be irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, forming a large amount of 65
Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout.^[123] Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.^[123] 65
Zn is also used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out, or the path and the role of zinc in organisms.^[124]

Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides; these include Zineb, Metiram, Propineb and Ziram.^[125] Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative.^[126] Zinc, in the form of ZDDP, is also used as an anti-wear additive for metal parts in engine oil.^[127]

Dietary supplement

GNC zinc 50 mg tablets (AU)

Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and mineral supplements.^[128] Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc acetate, and zinc gluconate.^[128] It is believed to possess antioxidant properties, which may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and muscles of the body; studies differ as to its effectiveness.^[129] Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an injury.^[129] It is also suspected of being beneficial to the body's immune system. Indeed, zinc deficiency may have effects on virtually all parts of the human immune system.^[130]

Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) and may be an effective treatment.^[131]

Zinc serves as a simple, inexpensive, and critical tool for treating diarrheal episodes among children in the developing world. Zinc becomes depleted in the body during diarrhea, but recent studies suggest that replenishing zinc with a 10- to 14-day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes and may also prevent future episodes for up to three months.^[132]

Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary supplement.

The Age-Related Eye Disease Study determined that zinc can be part of an effective treatment for age-related macular degeneration.^[133] Zinc supplementation is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to babies born with it.^[51]

Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the gastrointestinal tract, or to the absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc), or both.^[134]^[135] In 2011, researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of drugs in urine. Similar claims have been made in web forums on that topic.^[136]

Although not yet tested as a therapy in humans, a growing body of evidence indicates that zinc may preferentially kill prostate cancer cells. Because zinc naturally homes to the prostate and because the prostate is accessible with relatively non-invasive procedures, its potential as a chemotherapeutic agent in this type of cancer has shown promise.^[137] However, other studies have demonstrated that chronic use of zinc supplements in excess of the recommended dosage may actually increase the chance of developing prostate cancer, also likely due to the natural buildup of this heavy metal in the prostate.^[138]

Zinc lozenges and the common cold

Main article: Zinc and the common cold

There is strong evidence that zinc lozenges shorten the duration of colds.^[139] The most positive results have been found in studies in which zinc acetate was used, apparently because acetate does not bind zinc ions.^[140]^[141] Three high dose trials which used zinc acetate found an average 42% reduction in the duration of colds.^[139]

There is no concern of zinc toxicity in the dosages that were used in the zinc acetate trials with 80–100 mg/day of elemental zinc. The effect of zinc lozenges seems to take place locally in the oropharynx so that it is not a systemic effect, i.e., the effect is not a dietary supplement effect.

Topical use

Further information: Zinc oxide#Medical

Topical administration of zinc preparations include ones used on the skin, often in the form of zinc oxide. Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the summer and windburn in the winter.^[51] Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area (perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against diaper rash.^[51]

Zinc lactate is used in toothpaste to prevent halitosis.^[142] Zinc pyrithione is widely applied in shampoos because of its anti-dandruff function.^[143] Zinc ions are effective antimicrobial agents even at low concentrations.^[144]

Organic chemistry

Addition of diphenylzinc to an aldehyde

There are many important organozinc compounds. Organozinc chemistry is the science of organozinc compounds describing their physical properties, synthesis and reactions.^[145]^[146]^[147]^[148] Among important applications is the Frankland-Duppa Reaction in which an oxalate ester(ROCOCOOR) reacts with an alkyl halide R'X, zinc and hydrochloric acid to the α-hydroxycarboxylic esters RR'COHCOOR,^[149] the Reformatskii reaction which converts α-halo-esters and aldehydes to β-hydroxy-esters, the Simmons–Smith reaction in which the carbenoid (iodomethyl)zinc iodide reacts with alkene(or alkyne) and converts them to cyclopropane, the Addition reaction of organozinc compounds to carbonyl compounds. The Barbier reaction (1899) which is the zinc equivalent of the magnesium Grignard reaction and is better of the two. In presence of just about any water the formation of the organomagnesium halide will fail whereas the Barbier reaction can even take place in water. On the downside organozincs are much less nucleophilic than Grignards, are expensive and difficult to handle. Commercially available diorganozinc compounds are dimethylzinc, diethylzinc and diphenylzinc. In one study^[150]^[151] the active organozinc compound is obtained from much cheaper organobromine precursors:

The Negishi coupling is also an important reaction for the formation of new carbon carbon bonds between unsaturated carbon atoms in alkenes, arenes and alkynes. The catalysts are nickel and palladium. A key step in the catalytic cycle is a transmetalation in which a zinc halide exchanges its organic substituent for another halogen with the palladium (nickel) metal center. The Fukuyama coupling is another coupling reaction but this one with a thioester as reactant forming a ketone.

Biological role

Zinc is an essential trace element, necessary for plants,^[87] animals,^[152] and microorganisms.^[153] Zinc is found in nearly 100 specific enzymes^[154] (other sources say 300), serves as structural ions in transcription factors and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins.^[155] It is "typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms" after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.^[87]

In proteins, Zn ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine and histidine. The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins (as well as that of other transition metals) is difficult.^[156]

There are 2-4 grams of zinc^[157] distributed throughout the human body. Most zinc is in the brain, muscle, bones, kidney, and liver, with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye.^[158] Semen is particularly rich in zinc, which is a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth.^[159]

In humans, zinc plays "ubiquitous biological roles".^[5] It interacts with "a wide range of organic ligands",^[5] and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA, signal transduction, and gene expression. It also regulates apoptosis. A 2006 study estimated that about 10% of human proteins (2800) potentially bind zinc, in addition to hundreds which transport and traffic zinc; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc-related proteins.^[87]

In the brain, zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons^[160] and can "modulate brain excitability".^[5] It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning.^[161] However it has been called "the brain's dark horse"^[160] since it also can be a neurotoxin, suggesting zinc homeostasis plays a critical role in normal functioning of the brain and central nervous system.^[160]

Enzymes

Ribbon diagram of human carbonic anhydrase II, with zinc atom visible in the center

Zinc fingers help read DNA sequences.

Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid, making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions.^[154] The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry, which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions.^[162] Two examples of zinc-containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase, which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide (CO
2) regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively.^[163]

In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase converts CO
2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO
2 for exhalation through the lungs.^[164] Without this enzyme, this conversion would occur about one million times slower^[165] at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more.^[166] The non-related β-carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and alcoholic fermentation.^[167]

Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins. A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C=O group attached to zinc, which gives the carbon a positive charge. This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested.^[163]

Other proteins

Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers, twists and clusters.^[168] Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors, which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA. Each of the nine or ten Zn2+
ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger's structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor.^[165] The transcription factor wraps around the DNA helix and uses its fingers to accurately bind to the DNA sequence.

In blood plasma, zinc is bound to and transported by albumin (60%, low-affinity) and transferrin (10%).^[157] Since transferrin also transports iron, excessive iron reduces zinc absorption, and vice-versa. A similar reaction occurs with copper.^[169] The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake.^[170] Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine use zinc signaling as one way to communicate with other cells.^[171]

Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals.^[172] Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15–40%.^[173] However, inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals.^[174]

Dietary intake

Foods & spices containing zinc

In the U.S., the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 8 mg/day for women and 11 mg/day for men.^[175] Median intake in the U.S. around 2000 was 9 mg/day for women and 14 mg/day in men.^[176] Oysters, lobster^[177] and red meats, especially beef, lamb and liver have some of the highest concentrations of zinc in food.^[159]

Zinc supplements should only be ingested when there is zinc deficiency or increased zinc necessity (e.g. after surgeries, traumata or burns).^[178]^[179] Persistent intake of high doses of zinc can cause copper deficiency.^[178]

The concentration of zinc in plants varies based on levels of the element in soil. When there is adequate zinc in the soil, the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran) and various seeds (sesame, poppy, alfalfa, celery, mustard).^[180] Zinc is also found in beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds and blackcurrant.^[181]

Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements, which come in various forms. A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide, one of the most common supplements in the United States, and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body.^[182] This review cited studies which found low plasma zinc concentrations after zinc oxide and zinc carbonate were consumed compared with those seen after consumption of zinc acetate and sulfate salts.^[182] However, harmful excessive supplementation is a problem among the relatively affluent, and should probably not exceed 20 mg/day in healthy people,^[183] although the U.S. National Research Council set a Tolerable Upper Intake of 40 mg/day.^[184]

For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended zinc oxide in cereals as cheap, stable, and as easily absorbed as more expensive forms.^[185] A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas.^[186] A 1987 study found that zinc picolinate was better absorbed than zinc gluconate or zinc citrate.^[187] However, a study published in 2008 determined that zinc glycinate is the best absorbed of the four dietary supplement types available.^[188]

Deficiency

Main article: Zinc deficiency

Zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake, but can be associated with malabsorption, acrodermatitis enteropathica, chronic liver disease, chronic renal disease, sickle cell disease, diabetes, malignancy, and other chronic illnesses.^[6] Symptoms of mild zinc deficiency are diverse.^[176] Clinical outcomes include depressed growth, diarrhea, impotence and delayed sexual maturation, alopecia, eye and skin lesions, impaired appetite, altered cognition, impaired host defense properties, defects in carbohydrate utilization, and reproductive teratogenesis.^[170] Mild zinc deficiency depresses immunity,^[189] although excessive zinc does also.^[157] Animals with a diet deficient in zinc require twice as much food in order to attain the same weight gain as animals given sufficient zinc.^[118]

Groups at risk for zinc deficiency include the elderly, children in developing countries, and those with renal insufficiency. The zinc chelator phytate, found in seeds and cereal bran, can contribute to zinc malabsorption.^[6]

Despite some concerns,^[190] western vegetarians and vegans have not been found to suffer from overt zinc deficiencies any more than meat-eaters.^[191] Major plant sources of zinc include cooked dried beans, sea vegetables, fortified cereals, soyfoods, nuts, peas, and seeds.^[190] However, phytates in many whole-grains and fiber in many foods may interfere with zinc absorption and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects. There is some evidence to suggest that more than the US RDA (15 mg) of zinc daily may be needed in those whose diet is high in phytates, such as some vegetarians.^[190] These considerations must be balanced against the fact that there is a paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers, and the most widely used indicator, plasma zinc, has poor sensitivity and specificity.^[192] Diagnosing zinc deficiency is a persistent challenge.^[5]

Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc.^[6] In children it causes an increase in infection and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000 children worldwide per year.^[5] The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea.^[193] Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce mortality, especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth.^[193] However, zinc supplements should not be administered alone, since many in the developing world have several deficiencies, and zinc interacts with other micronutrients.^[194]

Soil remediation

The Ericoid Mycorrhizal Fungi Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in zinc metalliferous soils.^[195]

Agriculture

Zinc deficiency is crop plants' most common micronutrient deficiency; it is particularly common in high-pH soils.^[196] Zinc-deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of Turkey and India, a third of China, and most of Western Australia, and substantial responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas.^[87] Plants that grow in soils that are zinc-deficient are more susceptible to disease. Zinc is primarily added to the soil through the weathering of rocks, but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel combustion, mine waste, phosphate fertilizers, limestone, manure, sewage sludge, and particles from galvanized surfaces. Excess zinc is toxic to plants, although zinc toxicity is far less widespread.^[87]

Precautions

Main article: Zinc toxicity

Toxicity

Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption.^[174] The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.^[197] The Free Ion Activity Model is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all Daphnia in water.^[198]

The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive. Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid, in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride. Swallowing a post-1982 American one cent piece (97.5% zinc) can cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.^[199]

There is evidence of induced copper deficiency at low intakes of 100–300 mg Zn/day; a recent trial had higher hospitalizations for urinary complications compared to placebo among elderly men taking 80 mg/day.^[200] The USDA RDA is 11 and 8 mg Zn/day for men and women, respectively.^[175] Even lower levels, closer to the RDA, may interfere with the utilization of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol.^[174] Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese.^[88] There is also a condition called the zinc shakes or "zinc chills" that can be induced by the inhalation of freshly formed zinc oxide formed during the welding of galvanized materials.^[118] Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram. There have been cases of disability or even death due to excessive use of these products.^[201]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose, which can cause anosmia. Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections.^[202] On June 16, 2009, the FDA said that consumers should stop using zinc-based intranasal cold products and ordered their removal from store shelves. The FDA said the loss of smell can be life-threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it.^[203] Recent research suggests that the topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a potent heat shock response inducer that may impair genomic integrity with induction of PARP-dependent energy crisis in cultured human keratinocytes and melanocytes.^[204]

Poisoning

In 1982, the United States Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but made primarily of zinc. With the new zinc pennies, there is the potential for zinc toxicosis, which can be fatal. One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies (over 1 kg of zinc) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis, while another patient, who ingested 12 grams of zinc, only showed lethargy and ataxia (gross lack of coordination of muscle movements).^[205] Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins.^[206]^[207]

Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs, resulting in the need for medical treatment to remove the foreign body. The zinc content of some coins can cause zinc toxicity, which is commonly fatal in dogs, where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia, and also liver or kidney damage; vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms.^[208] Zinc is highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal.^[209] The consumption of fruit juices stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc.^[51]

Notes

^ An East India Company ship carrying a cargo of nearly pure zinc metal from the Orient sank off the coast Sweden in 1745.(Emsley 2001, p. 502)
^ Electric current will naturally flow between zinc and steel but in some circumstances inert anodes are used with an external DC source.

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^ "Special High Grade Zinc (SHG) 99.995%". Nyrstar. 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-01.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Porter, Frank C. (1991). Zinc Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-8340-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c Rosenqvist, Terkel (1922). Principles of Extractive Metallurgy (2 ed.). Tapir Academic Press. pp. 7, 16, 186. ISBN 82-519-1922-3.
^ Borg, Gregor; Kärner, Katrin; Buxton, Mike; Armstrong, Richard; van der Merwe, Schalk W. (2003). "Geology of the Skorpion Supergene Zinc Deposit, Southern Namibia". Economic Geology 98 (4): 749. doi:10.2113/98.4.749. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Bodsworth, Colin (1994). The Extraction and Refining of Metals. CRC Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-8493-4433-6.
^ Gupta, C. K.; Mukherjee, T. K. (1990). Hydrometallurgy in Extraction Processes. CRC Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-8493-6804-9. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b Kucha, H.; Martens, A.; Ottenburgs, R.; De Vos, W.; Viaene, W. (1996). "Primary minerals of Zn-Pb mining and metallurgical dumps and their environmental behavior at Plombières, Belgium". Environmental Geology 27 (1): 1. Bibcode:1996EnGeo..27....1K. doi:10.1007/BF00770598. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Broadley, M. R.; White, P. J.; Hammond, J. P.; Zelko I.; Lux A. (2007). "Zinc in plants". New Phytologist 173 (4): 677–702. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.01996.x. PMID 17286818. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Emsley 2001, p. 504
^ Heath, Alan G. (1995). Water pollution and fish physiology. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-87371-632-9.
^ "Derwent Estuary – Water Quality Improvement Plan for Heavy Metals". Derwent Estuary Program. June 2007. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
^ "The Zinc Works". TChange. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Zinc: World Mine Production (zinc content of concentrate) by Country". 2009 Minerals Yearbook: Zinc. Washington, D.C.: United States Geological Survey. February 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
^ Greenwood 1997, p. 1203
^ ^a ^b Stwertka 1998, p. 99
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Lehto 1968, p. 829
^ Bounoughaz, M.; Salhi, E.; Benzine, K.; Ghali E.; Dalard F. (2003). "A comparative study of the electrochemical behaviour of Algerian zinc and a zinc from a commercial sacrificial anode". Journal of Materials Science 38 (6): 1139. Bibcode:2003JMatS..38.1139B. doi:10.1023/A:1022824813564. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Besenhard, Jürgen O. (1999). Handbook of Battery Materials. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-527-29469-4. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ Wiaux, J. -P.; Waefler, J. -P. (1995). "Recycling zinc batteries: an economical challenge in consumer waste management". Journal of Power Sources 57 (1–2): 61. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(95)02242-2. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Culter, T. (1996). "A design guide for rechargeable zinc-air battery technology". Southcon/96. Conference Record: 616. doi:10.1109/SOUTHC.1996.535134. ISBN 0-7803-3268-7.
^ Whartman, Jonathan; Brown, Ian. "Zinc Air Battery-Battery Hybrid for Powering Electric Scooters and Electric Buses". The 15th International Electric Vehicle Symposium. Retrieved 2008-10-08. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Cooper, J. F; Fleming, D.; Hargrove, D.; Koopman, R.; Peterman, K. "A refuelable zinc/air battery for fleet electric vehicle propulsion". Society of Automotive Engineers future transportation technology conference and exposition. Retrieved 2008-10-08. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Bush, Douglas Earl; Kassel, Richard (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 679. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ "Coin Specifications". United States Mint. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ Jasinski, Stephen M. "Mineral Yearbook 1994: Zinc". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
^ Eastern Alloys contributors. "Diecasting Alloys". Maybrook, NY: Eastern Alloys. Retrieved 2009-01-19.
^ Apelian, D.; Paliwal, M.; Herrschaft, D. C. (1981). "Casting with Zinc Alloys". Journal of Metals 33: 12–19. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Davies, Geoff (2003). Materials for automobile bodies. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 157. ISBN 0-7506-5692-1.
^ Samans, Carl Hubert (1949). Engineering Metals and Their Alloys. Macmillan Co.
^ ^a ^b Porter, Frank (1994). "Wrought Zinc". Corrosion Resistance of Zinc and Zinc Alloys. CRC Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-8247-9213-8.
^ McClane, Albert Jules and Gardner, Keith (1987). The Complete book of fishing: a guide to freshwater, saltwater & big-game fishing. Gallery Books. ISBN 978-0-8317-1565-6. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
^ "Cast flywheel on old Magturbo trainer has been recalled since July 2000". Minoura.
^ ^a ^b ^c Katz, Johnathan I. (2002). The Biggest Bangs. Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 0-19-514570-4.
^ Zhang, Xiaoge Gregory (1996). Corrosion and Electrochemistry of Zinc. Springer. p. 93. ISBN 0-306-45334-7.
^ Weimer, Al (2006-05-17). "Development of Solar-powered Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen from Water". U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c Heiserman 1992, p. 124
^ Blew, Joseph Oscar (1953). "Wood preservatives". Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. hdl:1957/816.
^ Frankland, Edward (1849). "Notiz über eine neue Reihe organischer Körper, welche Metalle, Phosphor u. s. w. enthalten". Liebig's Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (in German) 71 (2): 213. doi:10.1002/jlac.18490710206.
^ ^a ^b ^c CRC 2006, p. 4-42
^ Paschotta, Rüdiger (2008). Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology. Wiley-VCH. p. 798. ISBN 3-527-40828-2.
^ Konstantinou, I. K.; Albanis, T. A. (2004). "Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review". Environment International 30 (2): 235. doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00176-4. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Boudreaux, Kevin A. "Zinc + Sulfur". Angelo State University. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ "Technical Information". Zinc Counters. 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
^ ^a ^b ^c Win, David Tin; Masum, Al (2003). "Weapons of Mass Destruction". Assumption University Journal of Technology (Assumption University) 6 (4): 199. Retrieved 2009-04-06. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ David E. Newton (1999). Chemical Elements: From Carbon to Krypton. U. X. L. /Gale. ISBN 0-7876-2846-8. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
^ Ullmann's Agrochemicals. Wiley-Vch (COR). 2007. pp. 591–592. ISBN 3-527-31604-3.
^ Walker, J. C. F. (2006). Primary Wood Processing: Principles and Practice. Springer. p. 317. ISBN 1-4020-4392-9.
^ "ZDDP Engine Oil – The Zinc Factor". Mustang Monthly. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
^ ^a ^b DiSilvestro, Robert A. (2004). Handbook of Minerals as Nutritional Supplements. CRC Press. pp. 135, 155. ISBN 0-8493-1652-9.
^ ^a ^b Milbury, Paul E.; Richer, Alice C. (2008). Understanding the Antioxidant Controversy: Scrutinizing the "fountain of Youth". Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 99. ISBN 0-275-99376-0. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Keen, CL; Gershwin, ME (1990). "Zinc deficiency and immune function". Annual review of nutrition 10: 415–31. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.10.070190.002215. PMID 2200472.
^ Swardfager, W; Herrmann, N; McIntyre, R. S.; Mazereeuw, G; Goldberger, K; Cha, D. S.; Schwartz, Y; Lanctôt, K. L. (2013). "Potential roles of zinc in the pathophysiology and treatment of major depressive disorder". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 37 (5): 911–29. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.018. PMID 23567517. edit
^ Bhutta, ZA; Bird, SM; Black, RE; Brown, KH; Gardner, JM; Hidayat, A; Khatun, F; Martorell, R et al. (2000). "Therapeutic effects of oral zinc in acute and persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries: pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials". The American journal of clinical nutrition 72 (6): 1516–22. PMID 11101480.
^ Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group (2001). "A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation With Vitamins C and E, Beta Carotene, and Zinc for Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Vision Loss: AREDS Report No. 8". Arch Ophthalmology 119 (10): 1417–36. doi:10.1001/archopht.119.10.1417. PMC 1462955. PMID 11594942.
^ Aydemir, T. B.; Blanchard, R. K.; Cousins, R. J. (2006). "Zinc supplementation of young men alters metallothionein, zinc transporter, and cytokine gene expression in leukocyte populations". PNAS 103 (6): 1699–704. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1699A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510407103. PMC 1413653. PMID 16434472. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Valko, M.; Morris, H.; Cronin, M. T. D. (2005). "Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative stress". Current Medicinal Chemistry 12 (10): 1161–208. doi:10.2174/0929867053764635. PMID 15892631. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Venkatratnam, Abhishek; Nathan Lents (1 July 2011). "Zinc Reduces the Detection of Cocaine, Methamphetamine, and THC by ELISA Urine Testing". Journal of Analytical Toxicology 35 (6): 333–340. doi:10.1093/anatox/35.6.333. PMID 21740689. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Shah, Maulik; Christopher Kriedt, Nathan H. Lents, Mary K. Hoyer, Nimah Jamaluddin, Claudette Kelin, Joseph J. Baldassare (17 June 2009). "Direct intra-tumoral injection of zinc-acetate halts tumor growth in a xenograft model of prostate cancer". Journal of Experimental and Clinical Cancer Research 28 (84): 84. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-28-84. PMC 2701928. PMID 19534805. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Leitzmann, M. F.; Stampfer, M. J.; Wu, K.; Colditz, G. A.; Willett, W. C.; Giovannucci, E. L. (2003). "Zinc Supplement Use and Risk of Prostate Cancer". JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 95 (13): 1004. doi:10.1093/jnci/95.13.1004.
^ ^a ^b Hemilä, H. (2011). "Zinc lozenges may shorten the duration of colds: a systematic review". Open Respiratory Medicine Journal 5: 51. doi:10.2174/1874306401105010051.
^ Eby, G. (2004). "Zinc lozenges: cold cure or candy? Solution chemistry determinations". Bioscience Reports 24 (1): 23. doi:10.1023/B:BIRE.0000037754.71063.41. http://george-eby-research.com/html/common-cold.pdf
^ Eby, G. (2010). "Zinc lozenges as cure for the common cold- a review and hypothesis". Medical Hypotheses 74 (3): 482. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2009.10.017. http://www.coldcure.com/html/zinc-lozenges-as-cure-for-common-cold.pdf
^ Roldán, S.; Winkel, E. G.; Herrera, D.; Sanz, M.; Van Winkelhoff, A. J. (2003). "The effects of a new mouthrinse containing chlorhexidine, cetylpyridinium chloride and zinc lactate on the microflora of oral halitosis patients: a dual-centre, double-blind placebo-controlled study". Journal of Clinical Periodontology 30 (5): 427. doi:10.1034/j.1600-051X.2003.20004.x.
^ Marks, R.; Pearse, A. D.; Walker, A. P. (1985). "The effects of a shampoo containing zinc pyrithione on the control of dandruff". British Journal of Dermatology 112 (4): 415. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1985.tb02314.x. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ McCarthy, T J; Zeelie, J J: Krause, D J (February 1992). "The antimicrobial action of zinc ion/antioxidant combinations". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics (American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics) 17 (1): 5. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Overman, Larry E.; Carpenter, Nancy E. (2005). "The Allylic Trihaloacetimidate Rearrangement". Organic Reactions. doi:10.1002/0471264180.or066.01. ISBN 0-471-26418-0.
^ Rappoport, Zvi; Marek, Ilan (2007-12-17). The Chemistry of Organozinc Compounds: R-Zn. ISBN 0-470-09337-4.
^ Knochel, Paul; Jones, Philip (1999). Organozinc reagents: A practical approach. ISBN 0-19-850121-8.
^ Herrmann, Wolfgang A (January 2002). Synthetic Methods of Organometallic and Inorganic Chemistry: Catalysis. ISBN 3-13-103061-5.
^ "Frankland-Duppa Reaction". Retrieved 2012-02-13.
^ Kim, Jeung Gon; Walsh, Patrick J. (2006). "From Aryl Bromides to Enantioenriched Benzylic Alcohols in a Single Flask: Catalytic Asymmetric Arylation of Aldehydes". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 45 (25): 4175. doi:10.1002/anie.200600741.
^ In this one-pot reaction bromobenzene is converted to phenyllithium by reaction with 4 equivalents of n-butyllithium, then transmetalation with zinc chloride forms diphenylzinc which continues to react in an asymmetric reaction first with the MIB ligand and then with 2-naphthylaldehyde to the alcohol. In this reaction formation of diphenylzinc is accompanied by that of lithium chloride, which unchecked, catalyses the reaction without MIB involvement to the racemic alcohol. The salt is effectively removed by chelation with tetraethylethylene diamine (TEEDA) resulting in an enantiomeric excess of 92%.
^ Prasad A. S. (2008). "Zinc in Human Health: Effect of Zinc on Immune Cells". Mol. Med. 14 (5–6): 353–7. doi:10.2119/2008-00033.Prasad. PMC 2277319. PMID 18385818.
^ Zinc's role in microorganisms is particularly reviewed in: Sugarman B (1983). "Zinc and infection". Review of Infectious Diseases 5 (1): 137–47. doi:10.1093/clinids/5.1.137. PMID 6338570.
^ ^a ^b NRC 2000, p. 443
^ Cotton 1999, pp. 625–629
^ Brandt, Erik G.; Hellgren, Mikko; Brinck, Tore; Bergman, Tomas; Edholm, Olle (2009). "Molecular dynamics study of zinc binding to cysteines in a peptide mimic of the alcohol dehydrogenase structural zinc site". Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 11 (6): 975–83. Bibcode:2009PCCP...11..975B. doi:10.1039/b815482a. PMID 19177216.
^ ^a ^b ^c Rink, L.; Gabriel P. (2000). "Zinc and the immune system". Proc Nutr Soc 59 (4): 541–52. doi:10.1017/S0029665100000781. PMID 11115789. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Wapnir, Raul A. (1990). Protein Nutrition and Mineral Absorption. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-5227-4.
^ ^a ^b Berdanier, Carolyn D.; Dwyer, Johanna T.; Feldman, Elaine B. (2007). Handbook of Nutrition and Food. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-9218-7. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Bitanihirwe BK, Cunningham MG (2009). "Zinc: The brain's dark horse". Synapse 63 (11): 1029–49. doi:10.1002/syn.20683. PMID 19623531.
^ Nakashima AS, Dyck RH (2009). "Zinc and cortical plasticity". Brain Res Rev 59 (2): 347–73. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.10.003. PMID 19026685.
^ Stipanuk, Martha H. (2006). Biochemical, Physiological & Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition. W. B. Saunders Company. pp. 1043–1067. ISBN 978-0-7216-4452-3.
^ ^a ^b Greenwood 1997, pp. 1224–1225
^ Kohen, Amnon; Limbach, Hans-Heinrich (2006). Isotope Effects in Chemistry and Biology. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 850. ISBN 0-8247-2449-6. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b Greenwood 1997, p. 1225
^ Cotton 1999, p. 627
^ Gadallah, M. A. A. (2000). "Effects of indole-3-acetic acid and zinc on the growth, osmotic potential and soluble carbon and nitrogen components of soybean plants growing under water deficit". Journal of Arid Environments 44 (4): 451. doi:10.1006/jare.1999.0610.
^ Cotton 1997, p. 628
^ Whitney, Eleanor Noss; Rolfes, Sharon Rady (2005). Understanding Nutrition (10th ed.). Thomson Learning. pp. 447–450. ISBN 978-1-4288-1893-4. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b NRC 2000, p. 447
^ Hershfinkel, Michal; Silverman, William F.; Sekler, Israel (2007). "The Zinc Sensing Receptor, a Link Between Zinc and Cell Signaling". Molecular Medicine 13 (7–8): 331–6. doi:10.1007/s10653-009-9255-4. PMC 1952663. PMID 17728842. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Cotton 1999, p. 629
^ Blake, Steve (2007). Vitamins and Minerals Demystified. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 242. ISBN 0-07-148901-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fosmire, G. J. (1990). "Zinc toxicity". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51 (2): 225–7. PMID 2407097.
^ ^a ^b Connie W. Bales; Christine Seel Ritchie (21 May 2009). Handbook of Clinical Nutrition and Aging. Springer. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-60327-384-8. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
^ ^a ^b NRC 2000, p. 442
^ "National Agricultural Library". Nal.usda.gov. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
^ ^a ^b Colin Tidy: Zinc Supplements. Patient.co.uk. 2010-03-22. Retrieved on 2013-11-02.
^ Burgerstein Zinktabletten 15 mg. In: Arzneimittel-Kompendium der Schweiz. 2009-09-07. Retrieved on 2013-11-02. (German)
^ Ensminger, Audrey H.; Konlande, James E. (1993). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 2368–2369. ISBN 0-8493-8980-1. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ "Zinc content of selected foods per common measure". USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
^ ^a ^b Allen, Lindsay H. (1998). "Zinc and micronutrient supplements for children". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68 (2 Suppl): 495S–498S. PMID 9701167.
^ Maret, W.; Sandstead H. H. (2006). "Zinc requirements and the risks and benefits of zinc supplementation". Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 20 (1): 3–18. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2006.01.006. PMID 16632171. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ "Zinc – Summary". Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Retrieved 2010-03-30.
^ Rosado, J. L. (2003). "Zinc and copper: proposed fortification levels and recommended zinc compounds". Journal of Nutrition 133 (9): 2985S–9S. PMID 12949397.
^ Hotz, C.; DeHaene, J.; Woodhouse, L. R.; Villalpando, S.; Rivera, J. A.; King, J. C. (2005). "Zinc absorption from zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc oxide + EDTA, or sodium-zinc EDTA does not differ when added as fortificants to maize tortillas". Journal of Nutrition 135 (5): 1102–5. PMID 15867288. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Barrie, SA.; Wright JV, Pizzorno JE, Kutter E, Barron PC. (1987). "Comparative absorption of zinc picolinate, zinc citrate and zinc gluconate in humans". Agents Actions 21 (1–2): 223–8. doi:10.1007/BF01974946. PMID 3630857. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ DiSilvestro, Robert A..; Swan, Melinda. (2008). "Comparison of Four Commercially Available Zinc Supplements for Performance in a Zinc Tolerance Test". The FASEB Journal 22. 693.3. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Ibs, K. H.; Rink, L.; (2003). "Zinc-altered immune function". Journal of Nutrition 133 (5 Suppl 1): 1452S–6S. PMID 12730441. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 2003, 06. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
^ Freeland-Graves J. H., Bodzy P. W., Epright M. A. (1980). "Zinc status of vegetarians". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 77 (6): 655–661. PMID 7440860.
^ Hambidge, M. (2003). "Biomarkers of trace mineral intake and status". Journal of Nutrition. 133 3 (3): 948S–955S. PMID 12612181.
^ ^a ^b WHO contributors (2007). "The impact of zinc supplementation on childhood mortality and severe morbidity". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
^ Shrimpton, R.; Gross, R.; Darnton-Hill, I.; Young, M. (2005). "Zinc deficiency: what are the most appropriate interventions?". British Medical Journal 330 (7487): 347–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7487.347. PMC 548733. PMID 15705693. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Geoffrey Michael Gadd (March 2010). "Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation". Microbiology 156. pp. 609–643.
^ Alloway, Brian J. (2008). "Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition , International Fertilizer Industry Association, and International Zinc Association"
^ Eisler, Ronald (1993). "Zinc Hazard to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review". Contaminant Hazard Reviews (Laurel, Maryland: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service) (10).
^ Muyssen, Brita, T. A.; De Schamphelaere, Karel A. C.; Janssen, Colin R. (2006). "Mechanisms of chronic waterborne Zn toxicity in Daphnia magna". Aquatic Toxicology 77 (4): 393–401. doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2006.01.006. PMID 16472524. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Bothwell, Dawn N.; Mair, Eric A.; Cable, Benjamin B. (2003). "Chronic Ingestion of a Zinc-Based Penny". Pediatrics 111 (3): 689–91. doi:10.1542/peds.111.3.689. PMID 12612262. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Johnson AR, Munoz A, Gottlieb JL, Jarrard DF (2007). "High dose zinc increases hospital admissions due to genitourinary complications". J. Urol. 177 (2): 639–43. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.09.047. PMID 17222649.
^ "Lawsuits blame denture adhesives for neurological damage". Tampa Bay Times. February 15, 2010.
^ Oxford, J. S.; Öberg, Bo (1985). Conquest of viral diseases: a topical review of drugs and vaccines. Elsevier. p. 142. ISBN 0-444-80566-4.
^ "FDA says Zicam nasal products harm sense of smell". Los Angeles Times. June 17, 2009.
^ Lamore SD, Cabello CM, Wondrak GT (2010). "The topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a heat shock response inducer that causes DNA damage and PARP-dependent energy crisis in human skin cells". Cell Stress Chaperones 15 (3): 309–22. doi:10.1007/s12192-009-0145-6. PMC 2866994. PMID 19809895.
^ Barceloux, Donald G.; Barceloux, Donald (1999). "Zinc". Clinical Toxicology 37 (2): 279. doi:10.1081/CLT-100102426. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Bennett, Daniel R. M.D.; Baird, Curtis J. M.D.; Chan, Kwok-Ming; Crookes, Peter F.; Bremner, Cedric G.; Gottlieb, Michael M.; Naritoku, Wesley Y. M.D. (1997). "Zinc Toxicity Following Massive Coin Ingestion". American Journal of Forensic Medicine & Pathology 18 (2): 148. doi:10.1097/00000433-199706000-00008. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Fernbach, S. K.; Tucker G. F. (1986). "Coin ingestion: unusual appearance of the penny in a child". Radiology 158 (2): 512. PMID 3941880. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
^ Stowe, CM; Nelson, R; Werdin, R; Fangmann, G; Fredrick, P; Weaver, G; Arendt, TD (1978). "Zinc phosphide poisoning in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 173 (3): 270. PMID 689968.
^ Reece, R. L.; Dickson, D. B.; Burrowes, P. J. (1986). "Zinc toxicity (new wire disease) in aviary birds". Australian Veterinary Journal 63 (6): 199. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1986.tb02979.x. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)

Bibliography

Chambers, William and Robert (1901). Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge (Revised ed.). London and Edinburgh: J. B. Lippincott Company.
Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-19957-5. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
CRC contributors (2006). David R. Lide, ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-8493-0487-3.
Emsley, John (2001). "Zinc". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 499–505. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
Heiserman, David L. (1992). "Element 30: Zinc". Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. New York: TAB Books. ISBN 0-8306-3018-X.
Lehto, R. S. (1968). "Zinc". In Clifford A. Hampel. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 822–830. ISBN 0-442-15598-0. LCCN 68-29938.
United States National Research Council, Institute of Medicine. (2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. National Academies Press. pp. 442–455.
Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Zinc". Guide to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). "III. Some Eighteenth-Century Metals". The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 0-7661-3872-0.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zinc.

Look up zinc in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Zinc Fact Sheet from the U.S. National Institutes of Health
History & Etymology of Zinc
Statistics and Information from the U.S. Geological Survey
Reducing Agents > Zinc
American Zinc Association Information about the uses and properties of zinc.
Outline safety data for zinc
International Society for Zinc Biology Founded in 2008, an international. nonprofit organization bringing together scientists working on the biological actions of zinc.
Zinc-UK Founded in 2010 to bring together scientists in the United Kingdom working on zinc.
Zinc at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)

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1. 小児および思春期における亜鉛の欠乏および補充 zinc deficiency and supplementation in children and adolescents
2. 食物中の微量ミネラルの概要 overview of dietary trace minerals
3. 成人における感冒：治療および予防 the common cold in adults treatment and prevention
4. ウィルソン病：治療および予後 wilson disease treatment and prognosis
5. 色素沈着過剰を有する患者へのアプローチ approach to the patient with hyperpigmentation disorders

English Journal

The effect of zinc ion on the absorption and emission spectra of glutathione derivative: Predication by ab initio and DFT methods.

Liu J, Ma J, Zhang H, Wang H.SourceSchool of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China; Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yibin University, Yibin 644000, PR China.
Spectrochimica acta. Part A, Molecular and biomolecular spectroscopy.Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc.2012 Jun;91:307-13. Epub 2012 Jan 28.
Relying on the reaction of o-phthalaldehyde (OPA) with glutathione (GSH) to form a highly fluorescence derivative GSH-OPA has been widely used to measure reduced glutathione. In order to better understand spectra property of the GSH-OPA and the effect of zinc ion on it, the ground and the lowest sin
PMID 22387681

Microbial activity and diversity in long-term mixed contaminated soils with respect to polyaromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals.

Thavamani P, Malik S, Beer M, Megharaj M, Naidu R.SourceCentre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR), University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia; Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE), Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia.
Journal of environmental management.J Environ Manage.2012 May 30;99:10-7. Epub 2012 Feb 2.
The co-occurrence of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with heavy metals and their effect on soil microbial activity have not been systematically investigated. In this study a holistic approach was employed by combining physico-chemical, biological and advanced molecular methods to determine the soil
PMID 22306081

Deregulation of Snai2 is associated with metastasis and poor prognosis in tongue squamous cell carcinoma.

Wang C, Liu X, Huang H, Ma H, Cai W, Hou J, Huang L, Dai Y, Yu T, Zhou X.SourceDepartment of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Guanghua School and Research Institute of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China; Center for Molecular Biology of Oral Diseases, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL.
International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer.Int J Cancer.2012 May 15;130(10):2249-58. doi: 10.1002/ijc.26226. Epub 2011 Aug 16.
The members of the Snail superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors, including Snai1 and Snai2, are involved in essential biological processes, such as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Although Snai1 has been investigated in a number of cancers, our knowledge on Snai2 and its role(s) i
PMID 21647877

Japanese Journal

Involvement of Val 315 located in the C-terminal region of thermolysin in its expression in Escherichia coli and its thermal stability.

Kojima Kenji,Nakata Hiroki,Inouye Kuniyo
Biochimica et biophysica acta -Proteins and Proteomics 1844(2), 330-338, 2014-02
… Thermolysin is a thermophilic and halophilic zinc metalloproteinase that consists of β-rich N-terminal (residues 1-157) and α-rich C-terminal (residues 158-316) domains. …
NAID 120005359199

ZINC-ACETIC ACID PROMOTED REDUCTIVE CARBON-NITROGEN BOND CLEAVAGE REACTION OF α-AMINOKETONES (Dedicated to Professor Victor Snieckus on the occasion of his 77th birthday)

Ishikawa Kyoko,Tomatsu Miyuki,Nagase Hiroshi [他]
Heterocycles : an international journal for reviews and communications in heterocyclic chemistry 88(2), 1051-1063, 2014-01-01
NAID 40019927950

硫酸酸性浴による亜鉛-ニッケル合金めっきの均一電着性に及ぼすシリカナノ粒子共析の影響

日野実,村上浩二,村岡賢 [他]
日本金属学会誌 = Journal of the Japan Institute of Metals and Materials 78(1), 31-36, 2014-01
NAID 40019936916

ナノマテリアルと化粧品の現状と将来

増永卓司
YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 134(1), 39-43, 2014
Cosmetics are consumer products intended to contribute to increasing quality of life and designed for long-term daily use. Due to such features of cosmetics, they are required to ensure quality and …
NAID 130003382306

Related Pictures

Chemical Elements - Zinc Molecule Gallery - Alkenes 5 Zinc Juniors Surging as the Metal Price Shines - SmallCapPower El zinc | Bienvenidos a Descubrirlaquimica Zinc wallpaper | 2560x1920 | #71589 Zinc Deficiency Symptoms, Causes, Risk Factors, and More - Health

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「亜鉛」
拡張検索	「crystalline zinc insulin」

「亜鉛」

Zinc
	30Zn
	copper ← zinc → gallium
	Zinc in the periodic table
Appearance
	silver-gray;
General properties
Name, symbol, number	zinc, Zn, 30
Pronunciation	/ˈzɪŋk/ ZINGK
Element category	transition metal; alternatively considered a post-transition metal
Group, period, block	12, 4, d
Standard atomic weight	65.38(2)
Electron configuration	[Ar] 3d10 4s2; 2, 8, 18, 2
History
Discovery	Indian metallurgists (before 1000 BC)
First isolation	Andreas Sigismund Marggraf (1746)
Recognized as a unique metal by	Rasaratna Samuccaya (800)
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	7.14 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.	6.57 g·cm−3
Melting point	692.68 K, 419.53 °C, 787.15 °F
Boiling point	1180 K, 907 °C, 1665 °F
Heat of fusion	7.32 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization	123.6 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity	25.470 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	+2, +1, 0; (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	1.65 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies; (more)	1st: 906.4 kJ·mol−1
	2nd: 1733.3 kJ·mol−1
	3rd: 3833 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius	134 pm
Covalent radius	122±4 pm
Van der Waals radius	139 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	hexagonal close-packed
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity	(20 °C) 59.0 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity	116 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 30.2 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(r.t.) (rolled) 3850 m·s−1
Young's modulus	108 GPa
Shear modulus	43 GPa
Bulk modulus	70 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.25
Mohs hardness	2.5
Brinell hardness	412 MPa
CAS registry number	7440-66-6
Most stable isotopes
	Main article: Isotopes of zinc
	Decay modes in parentheses are predicted, but have not yet been observed
	v; t; e; · ref

　　[★]

英: Zn zinc
関: 亜鉛欠乏症。微量元素欠乏症トレースエレメント欠乏症

原子番号30番の元素の金属で、原子量は65.39、元素記号はZnである。
人体では非常な僅かな量であるが、酵素が機能するために重要な役割を果たしており、必須微量元素と呼ばれている。

検査：金属定量用のスピッツで採血する。
基準値：血清亜鉛濃度：80-160μg/dl。小児の場合はこれより低め。
薬剤性：血中濃度上昇(サイアザイド系薬、ループ利尿薬、ジスルフィラム)、血中濃度低下(糖質コルチコイド、クロフィブラート、経口避妊薬)

医薬品

プロマック

サプリメント

酢酸亜鉛 zinc acetate, 酸化亜鉛 zinc oxide, 硫酸亜鉛 zinc sulfate, アセキサム酸亜鉛 zinc acexamate, アスパラギン酸亜鉛 zinc aspartate, クエン酸亜鉛 zinc citrate, グルコン酸亜鉛 zinc gluconate, モノメチコニン亜鉛 zinc monomethionine, ピコリン酸亜鉛 zinc picolinate
効能：

(奏効)亜鉛欠乏症(下痢や腸管吸収障害、肝硬変、アルコール依存症、長期の中心静脈栄養)の治療
(多分奏効)：ウィルソン病
(奏効するとはいえないが、効能は研究で示されている)摂食障害患者のうつ状態の改善や体重増加を促す、味覚障害、尋常性ざ瘡、骨粗鬆症(亜鉛低値と骨量減少の関連が示されている。亜鉛＋銅＋マンガン＋カルシウムの摂取で閉経後の女性で骨量減少を抑制することがある、腸性肢端皮膚炎の治療、ハンセン病の治療、外用による単純ヘルペスウイルスの治療、加齢黄斑変性症の治療、胃潰瘍の予防・治療、低亜鉛血症を背景とした筋痙攣・足潰瘍の予防

臨床関連

亜鉛欠乏症
金属熱：亜鉛の金属ヒュームの吸入により金属熱の原因となることがある(亜鉛熱)。

「crystalline zinc insulin」

　　[★] 結晶性亜鉛インスリン

[68] An East India Company ship carrying a cargo of nearly pure zinc metal from the Orient sank off the coast Sweden in 1745.(Emsley 2001, p. 502)

[97] Electric current will naturally flow between zinc and steel but in some circumstances inert anodes are used with an external DC source.

[Greenwood1997p1201-1] Greenwood 1997, p. 1201

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