WordNet

a vitrified substance; the glassy result of being vitrified
the process of becoming vitreous
undergo vitrification; become glassy or glass-like
change into glass or a glass-like substance by applying heat

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2016/05/28 16:36:28」(JST)

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A vitrification experiment.

Vitrification (from Latin vitreum, "glass" via French vitrifier) is the transformation of a substance into a glass,^[1] that is to say a non-crystalline amorphous solid. In ceramics it gives impermeability to water.^[2]

Vitrification is usually achieved by heating materials until they liquidize, then cooling the liquid, often rapidly, so that it passes through the glass transition to form a vitrified solid. Certain chemical reactions also result in glasses. In a wider sense, the embedding of material in a glassy matrix is also called vitrification. An important application is the vitrification of radioactive waste to obtain a stable compound that is suitable for ultimate disposal.

In terms of chemistry, vitrification is characteristic for amorphous materials or disordered systems and occurs when bonding between elementary particles (atoms, molecules, forming blocks) becomes higher than a certain threshold value.^[3] Thermal fluctuations break the bonds; therefore, the lower the temperature, the higher the degree of connectivity. Because of that amorphous materials have a characteristic threshold temperature termed glass transition temperature (T_g): below T_g amorphous materials are glassy whereas above T_g they are molten.

The most common applications are in the making of pottery, glass, and some types of food, but there are many others, such as the vitrification of an antifreeze-like liquid in cryopreservation.

Ceramics

Vitrification is the progressive partial fusion of a clay, or of a body, as a result of a firing process. As vitrification proceeds the proportion of glassy bond increases and the apparent porosity of the fired product becomes progressively lower.^[4]^[5] Vitreous bodies have open porosity, and may be either opaque or translucent. In this context 'zero porosity'; may be defined as less than 1% water absorption. However, various standard procedures define the conditions of water absorption. ^[6]^[7]^[8] An example is by ASTM, who state "The term vitreous generally signifies less than 0.5 % absorption. except for floor and wall tile and low-voltage electrical insulators which are considered vitreous up to 3 % water absorption."^[9]

Glazing alone does not make pottery impermeable to water. Porcelain, bone china and sanitaryware are examples of vitrified pottery, and are impermeable even without glaze. Stoneware may be vitrified or semi-vitrified, the latter type would not be impermeable without glaze.^[10]^[11]^[12]

Other applications

When sucrose is cooled slowly it results in crystal sugar (or rock candy), but when cooled rapidly it can form syrupy cotton candy (candyfloss). In the process of vitrification the solid waste is exposed to heat and is converted into a sort of glass-like substance.

Vitrification can also occur when starting with a liquid such as water, usually through very rapid cooling or the introduction of agents that suppress the formation of ice crystals. This is in contrast to ordinary freezing which results in ice crystal formation. Additives used in cryobiology or produced naturally by organisms living in polar regions are called cryoprotectants.

Arctic frogs and some other ectotherms naturally produce glycerol or glucose in their livers to reduce ice formation. When glucose is used as a cryoprotectant by arctic frogs, massive amounts of glucose are released at low temperature and a special form of insulin allows for this extra glucose to enter the cells. When the frog rewarms during spring, the extra glucose must be rapidly eliminated, but stored. Arctic insects also use sugars as cryoprotectants. Arctic fish use antifreeze proteins, sometimes appended with sugars, as cryoprotectants.

Applications

Ordinary soda-lime glass, used in windows and drinking containers, is created by the addition of sodium carbonate and lime (calcium oxide) to silicon dioxide. Without these additives silicon dioxide will require very high temperature to obtain a melt and subsequently (with slow cooling) a glass.

Vitrification is a proven technique in the disposal and long-term storage of nuclear waste or other hazardous wastes^[13] in a method called geomelting. Waste is mixed with glass-forming chemicals in a furnace to form molten glass that then solidifies in canisters, thereby immobilizing the waste. The final waste form resembles obsidian and is a non-leaching, durable material that effectively traps the waste inside. The waste can be stored for relatively long periods in this form without concern for air or groundwater contamination. Bulk vitrification uses electrodes to melt soil and wastes where they lay buried. The hardened waste may then be disinterred with less danger of widespread contamination. According to the Pacific Northwest National Labs, "Vitrification locks dangerous materials into a stable glass form that will last for thousands of years."^[14]

Vitrification in cryopreservation is used as a common method to preserve, for example, human egg cells (oocytes) (in oocyte cryopreservation) and embryos (in embryo cryopreservation). For years, glycerol has been used in cryobiology as a cryoprotectant for blood cells and bull sperm, allowing storage at liquid nitrogen temperatures. However, glycerol cannot be used to protect whole organs from damage. Instead, many biotechnology companies are researching the development of other cryoprotectants more suitable for such uses. A successful discovery may eventually make possible the bulk cryogenic storage (or "banking") of transplantable human and xenobiotic organs. A substantial step in that direction has already occurred. Twenty-First Century Medicine has vitrified a rabbit kidney to -135 °C with their proprietary vitrification cocktail. Upon rewarming, the kidney was successfully transplanted into a rabbit, with complete functionality and viability, able to sustain the rabbit indefinitely as the sole functioning kidney.^[15]

Currently, vitrification techniques have only been applied to brains (neurovitrification) by Alcor and to the upper body by the Cryonics Institute, but research is in progress by both organizations to apply vitrification to the whole body. (2016 Update: The Cryonics Institute does whole body vitrification.)

References

^ A.K. Varshneya. Fundamentals of inorganic glasses. Sheffield: Society of Glass Technology, 2006.
^ Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. Dictionary of Ceramics; 3rd edition. The Institute of Minerals, 1994.
^ M.I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. Connectivity and glass transition in disordered oxide systems J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 356, 2534-2540 (2010).
^ Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. Dictionary of Ceramics; 3rd edition. The Institute of Minerals, 1994.
^ 'Role Of Accessory Minerals On The Vitrification Of Whiteware Compositions.' N.M.Ghoneim; E.H.Sallam; D.M. Ebrahim. Ceram.Int. 16. No.1. 1990.
^ Whitewares: Production, Testing and Quality Control. William Ryan & Charles Radford. Institute of Materials, 1997
^ 'Methods Of Extending The Narrow Vitrification Range Of Clays.' E.V. Glass & Ceramics 36, (8), 450, 1979.
^ 'Control Of Optimum Vitrification In Vitreous And Porcelain Bodies.' E.Signorini. Ceram.Inf. 26. No.301. 1991
^ ASTM C242-01. 'Standard Terminology Of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products'.
^ 'Body Builders.' J.Ahmed. Asian Ceramics. June 2014
^ Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. Dictionary of Ceramics; 3rd edition. The Institute of Minerals, 1994.
^ 'An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery.' Paul Rado, Institute of Ceramics. 1988.
^ M.I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. Glassy wasteforms for nuclear waste immobilisation. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 42 (4), 837-851 (2011).
^ "Waste Form Release Calculations for the 2005 Integrated Disposal Facility Performance Assessment" (PDF). PNNL-15198. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. July 2005. Retrieved 2006-11-08.
^ Fahy GM; Wowk B; Pagotan R; Chang A; et al. (2009). "Physical and biological aspects of renal vitrification". ORGANOGENESIS 5 (3): 167–175. doi:10.4161/org.5.3.9974. PMC 2781097. PMID 20046680.

Steven Ashle (June 2002). "Divide and Vitrify" (PDF). Scientific American. Retrieved May 10, 2015.
Stefan Lovgren, "Corpses Frozen for Future Rebirth by Arizona Company", March 2005, National Geographic

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

Connexin 37 and 43 gene and protein expression and developmental competence of isolated ovine secondary follicles cultured in vitro after vitrification of ovarian tissue.

Sampaio da Silva AM1, Bruno JB1, de Lima LF1, Ribeiro de Sá NA1, Lunardi FO1, Ferreira AC1, Vieira Correia HH1, de Aguiar FL1, Araújo VR1, Lobo CH2, de Alencar Araripe Moura A2, Campello CC1, Smitz J3, de Figueiredo JR1, Ribeiro Rodrigues AP4.
Theriogenology.Theriogenology.2016 May;85(8):1457-67. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.01.001. Epub 2016 Jan 12.
Cryoinjuries caused by vitrification of tissues and organs lead to the loss of membrane proteins that mediate intercellular communications, such as connexins 37 (Cx37) and 43 (Cx43). Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate ovine Cx37 and Cx43 gene and protein expressions and developmental competen
PMID 26876055

Ovine secondary follicles vitrified out the ovarian tissue grow and develop in vitro better than those vitrified into the ovarian fragments.

Lunardi FO1, de Aguiar FL2, Duarte AB2, Araújo VR2, de Lima LF2, Ribeiro de Sá NA2, Vieira Correia HH2, Domingues SF3, Campello CC2, Smitz J4, de Figueiredo JR2, Ribeiro Rodrigues AP2.
Theriogenology.Theriogenology.2016 Apr 15;85(7):1203-10. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.10.043. Epub 2015 Nov 10.
Cryopreservation of preantral follicles is a promising technique to preserve female fertility. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of vitrification on the development of secondary follicles included in ovarian tissue or isolated after microdissection. An important end point included is
PMID 26852069

Short- and long-term outcomes of the absence of protein during bovine blastocyst formation in vitro.

Murillo-Ríos A, Maillo V, Muñoz M, Gutiérrez-Adán A, Carrocera S, Martín-González D, Fernandez-Buznego A, Gómez E.
Reproduction, fertility, and development.Reprod Fertil Dev.2016 Apr 6. doi: 10.1071/RD15485. [Epub ahead of print]
In cattle, individual in vitro embryo culture after Day 6 benefits development, allowing non-invasive analysis of culture medium. However, undefined supplements in culture reduce analytical reliability. In this study we assayed the short- and long-term performance of embryos after bovine serum album
PMID 27048912

Japanese Journal

In Situ TEM Observation of Structural Changes in Rapidly Solidified bcc Solid-Solution Phase in Ti-Cr Alloy Focusing on Spontaneous Vitrification (SV) (Special Issue on In Situ TEM Observation of High Energy Beam Irradiation)

Nagase Takeshi,Anada Satoshi,Kobayashi Keita [他]
Materials transactions 55(3), 451-457, 2014-03
NAID 40020002822

In Vitro Growth and Maturation of Vitrified-Warmed Bovine Oocytes Collected from Early Antral Follicles

HIRAO Yuji,SOMFAI Tamas,NARUSE Kenji
The journal of reproduction and development 60(1), 68-72, 2014-02
NAID 40019997137

Successful Production of Piglets Derived from Expanded Blastocysts Vitrified Using a Micro Volume Air Cooling Method without Direct Exposure to Liquid Nitrogen