turkey

シチメンチョウ 　 　 　 　

WordNet

1. large gallinaceous bird with fan-shaped tail; widely domesticated for food (同)Meleagris gallopavo
2. an event that fails badly or is totally ineffectual; "the first experiment was a real turkey"; "the meeting was a dud as far as new business was concerned" (同)bomb, dud
3. flesh of large domesticated fowl usually roasted
4. black megapode of wooded regions of Australia and New Guinea (同)Alectura lathami
5. popular Australian game bird (同)Choriotis australis
6. discuss frankly, often in a business context
7. a Eurasian republic in Asia Minor and the Balkans; on the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the Young Turks, led by Kemal Ataturk, established a republic in 1923 (同)Republic of Turkey

PrepTutorEJDIC

1. 〈C〉『シチメンチョウ』(七面鳥) / 〈U〉シチメンチョウに肉 / 〈C〉《話》失敗作,だめなもの,だめな人,いやなやつ
2. 『トルコ』(小アジアからヨーロッパ南東部にわたる共和国;首都は Ankara)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/11/28 17:16:01」(JST)

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トルコ共和国

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti

（国旗）	（国章）

国の標語：Yurtta Sulh, Cihanda Sulh
（トルコ語: 国に平和、世界に平和）

国歌：独立行進曲

公用語	トルコ語
首都	アンカラ
最大の都市	イスタンブール
政府 大統領 レジェップ・タイイップ・エルドアン 首相 ビナリ・ユルドゥルム 面積 総計 783,562km2（37位） 水面積率 1.3 % 人口 総計（2012年） 75,627,384人（18位） 人口密度 88人/km2 GDP（自国通貨表示） 合計（2013年） 1兆5,615億トルコリラ GDP (MER) 合計（2013年） 8,200億ドル（18位） GDP (PPP) 合計（2013年） 1兆4,435億ドル（17位） 1人あたり 18,874ドル
建国  - 宣言	共和制宣言 1923年10月29日
通貨	トルコリラ (TRY)
時間帯	UTC +3（DST：なし）
ISO 3166-1	TR / TUR
ccTLD	.tr
国際電話番号	90

トルコ共和国（トルコきょうわこく、トルコ語: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti）、通称トルコは、西アジアのアナトリア半島（小アジア）と東ヨーロッパのバルカン半島東端の東トラキア地方を領有する、アジアとヨーロッパの2つの大州にまたがる共和国。首都はアナトリア中央部のアンカラ。

北は黒海、南は地中海に面し、西でブルガリア、ギリシャと、東でジョージア（グルジア）、アルメニア、アゼルバイジャン、イラン、イラク、シリアと接する。

トルコとヨーロッパ

トルコ政府の公式見解では自国をヨーロッパの国としている。

• 現代では経済的・政治的にヨーロッパの一員として参加しつつある。
  • ヘルシンキ宣言に署名し、現在欧州連合 (EU) へ加盟申請中である。

なお、EU加盟基準であるコペンハーゲン基準については現在議論が行われている。

トルコとアジア

トルコの国土の96%がアジアのアナトリア半島にあり、人口でもアジア側が9割弱を占める。

• 首都アンカラはアジア側に位置し、最大の都市であるイスタンブールはアジアとヨーロッパにまたがる海峡都市である。
• 歴史的にもセルジューク朝をはじめイラン（ペルシャ）やイラクの影響が強い。
• 日本の公式見解では、中東アジアの国として分類されている。

国名

トルコ語による正式国名は、 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti（テュルキイェ・ジュムフリイェティ）、通称 Türkiye（テュルキイェ）である。

公式の英語表記は、Republic of Turkey。通称 Turkey（ターキー）。

英語など諸外国語では、トルコ共和国の前身であるオスマン帝国の時代から、Turkey, Turquie など、「トルコ人の国」を意味する名でこの国家を呼んできたが、元来多民族国家であったオスマン帝国の側では「オスマン国家」などの名称が国名として用いられており、自己をトルコ人の国家と認識することはなかった。

第一次世界大戦後、国土が列強に分割され、ほぼアナトリア半島のみに縮小したオスマン帝国に代わって新しい政権が打ち立てられた。

Türk（テュルク）は、アナトリアへの移住以前、中央アジアで暮らしていたトルコ人が、モンゴル高原を中心とする遊牧帝国、突厥を築いた6世紀頃にはすでに使われていた民族名だが、語源には諸説ある。現在のトルコ共和国では一般に、突厥の建国を以って「トルコの建国」と考えている。

日本語名のトルコは、ポルトガル語で「トルコの」を意味する形容詞turcoに由来する。漢語表記の土耳古は、中国語の土耳其に由来する。

歴史

詳細は「トルコの歴史」を参照

アナトリアには旧石器時代（1万1000年から60万年前）からの遺跡が存在する。紀元前2000年末頃から鉄をつくる技術が中近東世界に広がった。この地域が鉄器時代に入ったと考えられる。

トルコの国土の大半を占めるアジア側のアナトリア半島（小アジア）とトルコ最大の都市であるヨーロッパ側のイスタンブールは、古代からヒッタイト・フリュギア・リディア・東ローマ帝国などさまざまな民族・文明が栄えた地である。

一方、北アジアではトルコ（テュルク）系民族として突厥が552年に独立し、現在のトルコ共和国ではこれを以てトルコの最初の建国とみなしている。

11世紀に、トルコ系のイスラム王朝、セルジューク朝の一派がアナトリアに立てたルーム・セルジューク朝の支配下で、ムスリム（イスラム教徒）のトルコ人が流入するようになり、土着の諸民族と対立・混交しつつ次第に定着していった。彼らが打ち立てた群小トルコ系君侯国の一つから発展したオスマン朝は、15世紀にビザンツ帝国を滅ぼしてイスタンブールを都とし、東はアゼルバイジャンから西はモロッコまで、北はウクライナから南はイエメンまで支配する大帝国を打ち立てる。

19世紀になると、衰退を示し始めたオスマン帝国の各地では、ナショナリズムが勃興して諸民族が次々と独立してゆき、帝国は第一次世界大戦の敗北により英仏伊、ギリシャなどの占領下におかれ完全に解体された。中でもギリシャは、自国民居住地の併合を目指してアナトリア内陸部深くまで進攻した。また、東部では、アルメニア国家が建設されようとしていた。これらに対してトルコ人たち（旧帝国軍人や旧勢力、進歩派の人たち）は国土・国民の安全と独立を訴えて武装抵抗運動を起こした。この抵抗運動をトルコ独立戦争（1919年5月）という。1920年4月アンカラに抵抗政権を樹立したムスタファ・ケマル（アタテュルク）の下に結集して戦い、1922年9月、現在のトルコ共和国の領土を勝ち取った。

1923年、アンカラ政権は共和制を宣言。翌1924年にオスマン王家のカリフをイスタンブールから追放して、西洋化による近代化を目指すイスラム世界初の世俗主義国家トルコ共和国を建国した。第二次世界大戦後、ソ連に南接するトルコは、反共の防波堤として西側世界に迎えられ、NATO、OECDに加盟する。国父アタテュルク以来、トルコはイスラムの復活を望む人々などの国内の反体制的な勢力を強権的に政治から排除しつつ、西洋化に邁進してきた（ヨーロッパ評議会への加盟、死刑制度の廃止など）が、その最終目標であるEUへの加盟にはクルド問題やキプロス問題、ヨーロッパ諸国の反トルコ・イスラム感情などが大きな障害となっている。

またキリスト教（正教会）を国教とするアルメニア共和国とも緊張した関係が続いている。アルメニアの民族派はトルコ東南部を西アルメニアだと主張して返還を求めている。

政治

EUとトルコ

レジェップ・タイイップ・エルドアン大統領

アフメト・ダウトオール第62-64代首相（2014-2016年）

詳細は「トルコの政治」および「トルコの法制度」を参照

1982年に定められた憲法では、世俗主義が標榜されている。三権はほとんど完全に分立しており、憲法の目的（世俗主義、他）を達成するためにそれぞれの役割を果たすことが期待されている。このことが、世俗派と宗教的保守派との対立を助長し、その対決が終息しない遠因ともなっている。立法府として一院制のトルコ大国民議会（Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi、定数550名、任期5年）がある。行政は議会によって選出される国家元首の大統領（任期7年）が務めるが、首相の権限が強い議院内閣制に基づいている。司法府は、下級審である司法裁判所、刑事裁判所、および控訴審である高等控訴院、憲法裁判所で構成され、通常司法と軍事司法に分離されている。司法は政党の解党判断、党員の政治活動禁止と言った政治的な事項についても判断できる。

その後、2007年の憲法改正により大統領は国民投票により選出されることとなり、また任期も7年から5年へと短縮された。2010年の憲法改正を経たのち、2017年の憲法改正では大統領権限が強化され、議院内閣制を廃止することが定められている。

「トルコ大国民議会」、「トルコの大統領」、および「トルコの首相」も参照

政治は多党制の政党政治を基本としているが、政党の離合集散が激しく、議会の選挙は小党乱立を防ぐため、10%以上の得票率を獲得できなかった政党には議席がまったく配分されない独特の方式を採っている。この制度のために、2002年の総選挙では、選挙前に中道右派・イスラム派が結集して結党された公正発展党 (AKP) と、野党で中道左派系・世俗主義派の共和人民党 (CHP) の2党が地すべり的な勝利を収め、議席のほとんどを占めている。2007年7月22日に実施された総選挙では、公正発展党が前回を12ポイントを上回る総得票率 47 % を獲得して圧勝した。共和人民党が議席を減らし、112議席を獲得。極右の民族主義者行動党 (MHP) が得票率 14.3 % と最低得票率 10 % 以上の票を獲得し71議席を獲得、結果的に公正発展党は340議席となり、前回より12議席を減らすこととなった。独立候補は最低得票率の制限がなく、クルド系候補など27議席を獲得した。

「トルコの政党」も参照

ムスタファ・ケマル・アタテュルク以来強行的に西欧化を押し進めてきたトルコでは、その歴史においてケマルをはじめ、政治家を数多く輩出した軍がしばしば政治における重要なファクターとなっており、政治や経済の混乱に対してしばしば圧力をかけている。1960年に軍は最初のクーデターを起こしたが、その後、参謀総長と陸海空の三軍および内務省ジャンダルマ（憲兵隊）の司令官をメンバーに含む国家安全保障会議 (Milli Güvenlik Kurulu) が設置され、国政上の問題に対して内閣に圧力をかける実質上の政府の上位機関と化しているが、このような軍部の政治介入は、国民の軍に対する高い信頼に支えられていると言われる。1980年の二度目のクーデター以降、特にイスラム派政党の勢力伸張に対して、軍は「ケマリズム」あるいは「アタテュルク主義」と呼ばれるアタテュルクの敷いた西欧化路線の護持を望む世俗主義派の擁護者としての性格を前面に打ち出している。軍は1997年にイスラム派の福祉党主導の連立政権を崩壊に追い込み、2007年には公正発展党による同党副党首の大統領選擁立に対して懸念を表明したが、この政治介入により国際的な非難を浴びた。8月29日には、議会での3回の投票を経てアブドゥラー・ギュル外相が初のイスラム系大統領として選出された。この結果、軍が最早以前のように安易に政治に介入できる環境ではなくなり、世俗派と宗教的保守派の対立はもっと社会の内部にこもったものとなってきている（エルゲネコン捜査）。

2009年3月29日、自治体の首長や議員を選ぶ選挙が行われた。イスラム系与党・公正発展党が世俗派野党・共和人民党などを押さえ勝利した。

2010年9月12日には、与党・公正発展党 (AKP) が提起した憲法改定案の是非を問う国民投票が実施された。現憲法は1980年のクーデター後の1982年に制定されたもので、軍や司法当局に大幅な権限を与え、国民の民主的権利を制限するといわれてきた。この憲法改定案は民主主義を求める国民の声や欧州連合 (EU) 加盟の条件整備などを踏まえ、司法や軍の政治介入を押さえ、国会や大統領の権限を強めることなど26項目を提起している。国民投票の結果、憲法改正案は58%の支持で承認された。投票率は 73 % であった。エルドアン首相は民主主義の勝利だと宣言した（AFP電）。また、国民投票結果について「発達した民主主義と法治国家に向けトルコは歴史的な一線を乗り越えた」と評価した。欧米諸国はこの改憲国民投票結果を歓迎している。欧州連合 (EU) の執行機関欧州委員会は、トルコのEU加盟に向けての一歩だと讃えた。

2014年8月28日にエルドアン首相は大統領に就任し、アフメト・ダウトオール外相が首相となったが、2016年5月22日にはビナリ・ユルドゥルムが新たな首相に就任した。

軍事

トルコ陸軍のコブラ装甲車

詳細は「トルコ軍」を参照

トルコには軍事組織として、陸軍・海軍・空軍で組織されるトルコ軍 (Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri) と内務省に所属するジャンダルマ（憲兵隊、Jandarma）・沿岸警備隊 (Sahil Güvenlik) が置かれている。トルコ政府は2011年末までに金銭を納めることで兵役を免除可能とすることで事実上良心的兵役拒否を合法化した。兵員定数はないが、三軍併せておおむね65万人程度の兵員数である。また、ジャンダルマ・沿岸警備隊は戦時にはそれぞれ陸軍・海軍の指揮下にはいることとされている。ただし、ジャンダルマについては、平時から陸軍と共同で治安作戦などを行っている。

指揮権は平時には大統領に、戦時には参謀総長 (Genelkurmay Başkanı) に属すると憲法に明示されており、戦時においてはトルコには文民統制は存在しない。また、首相および国防大臣には軍に対する指揮権・監督権は存在しない。ただし、トルコ軍は歴史的にも、また現在においてもきわめて政治的な行動をとる軍隊であり、また、国防予算の 15 % 程度が議会のコントロール下にない軍基金・国防産業基金等からの歳入であるなど、平時においてもトルコ軍に対する文民統制には疑問も多い。この結果、軍はいわば第四権と言った性格を持ち、世俗主義や内政の安定を支える大きな政治的・社会的影響力を発揮してきた。

1960年と1980年にはクーデターで軍事政権を樹立したこともある。近年はエルドアン政権の権限強化とそれに対するクーデター失敗、経済発展に伴う社会の成熟・多様化により、軍部の影響力は以前より低下している。

軍事同盟としては1952年以降NATOに加盟し、1992年以降はWEUに準加盟している。また、1979年それ自体が崩壊するまでCENTO加盟国でもあった。2国間同盟としては1996年、イスラエルと軍事協力協定および軍事産業協力協定を締結しており、1998年には実際にアメリカ合衆国・イスラエル・トルコの3国で共同軍事演習が行われた。

NATO加盟国としては唯一、中露が主導する非欧米国家グループである上海協力機構の対話パートナーにもなっており、2015年にはエルドアン大統領によって正規加盟が要請された。

トルコ南東部においてはPKKとの戦闘状態が長年続いている。南隣にあるイラクとシリアに対しても、国境をまたいで活動するPKKやイスラム国など反トルコ勢力への攻撃と、親トルコ派勢力の支援を目的に、派兵や越境空爆をしばしば行っている。

また2016年には、ペルシャ湾岸のカタールの基地を利用する協定を結んだ。

国際関係

詳細は「トルコの国際関係」を参照

外交面では、北大西洋条約機構 (NATO) 加盟国として伝統的に西側の一員である。また、NATO加盟国としては唯一、非欧米軍事同盟である上海協力機構の対話パートナーであり、中露との軍事協力も行うなど、もはや西側一辺倒の外交路線ではなくなっている。

また、欧州連合 (EU) への加盟を長年の目標としてきた。2002年に政権についた公正発展党は、イスラム系を中心とする政党ながら軍との距離を慎重に保って人権問題を改善する改革を進めてきた。2004年には一連の改革が一応の評価を受け、条件付ではあるものの欧州委員会によって2005年10月からのEUへの加盟交渉の開始が勧告された。しかし、その後のEU加盟交渉はさまざまな要因から停滞している。

日本国との関係

詳細は「日本とトルコの関係」を参照

1890年（明治23年）に、現在の和歌山県串本町沖で発生したエルトゥールル号遭難事件での日本の対応が評価されたことなどから、両国の友好関係が築かれている。

ギリシャとの関係

詳細は「en:Greek–Turkish relations」を参照

隣国のギリシャとは緊張関係が続いている。古くはギリシャ人国家であった東ローマ帝国が現在のトルコに当たる地域を支配していたが、やがてオスマン帝国がそれを滅ぼし支配下に置いた。その後、19世紀初頭に列強の後押しでギリシャが独立し、「大ギリシャ主義」を掲げて衰退の進むオスマン帝国からの領土奪回を目論んだ。バルカン戦争、第1次世界大戦後に領土をめぐる希土戦争が起こり、ギリシャとトルコの住民交換で解決された。しかし当時イギリスの植民地だったキプロス島の帰属は決められなかったためにキプロス独立後にキプロスと北キプロスに分裂した。

アルメニア共和国との関係

隣国のアルメニア共和国とは緊張関係が続いている。アルメニアの民族派がヴァン県などトルコ東南部をアルメニア人の奪われた土地だと主張している。

一部のアルメニア人の反トルコ主義や西アルメニアの返還の主張にはトルコの保守層の警戒感を招いている。元々、アルメニア王国とトルコの国境は時代により大きく変化しており、国民国家の概念が成立する前から対立が続いた。またトルコはイスラーム信者が多く、アルメニアにはキリスト教を国教にしている宗教対立の側面もある。

MIKTA

MIKTA（ミクタ）は、メキシコ (Mexico)、インドネシア (Indonesia)、大韓民国 (Korea, Republic of)、トルコ (Turkey)、オーストラリア (Australia) の5ヶ国によるパートナーシップである。詳細は該当ページへ。

地方行政区分

トルコの地方行政区画

詳細は「トルコの地方行政区画」を参照

トルコの地方行政制度はオスマン帝国の州県制をベースとしてフランスに範をとり、全土を県 (il) と呼ばれる地方行政区画に区分している。1999年以降の県の総数は81である。各県には中央政府の代理者として知事 (vali) が置かれ、県の行政機関 (valilik) を統括する。県行政の最高権限は4年任期で民選される県議会が担い、県知事は県議会の決定に従って職務を遂行する。

県の下には民選の首長を有する行政機関 (belediye) をもった市 (şehir)があり、郡の下には自治体行政機関のある市・町 (belde) と、人口2000人未満で自治体権限の弱い村 (köy) がある。イスタンブール、アンカラなどの大都市行政区 (büyük şehir) は、市の中に特別区に相当する自治体とその行政機関 (belediye) を複数持ち、都市全体を市自治体 (büyük şehir belediyesi) が統括する。

主要都市

詳細は「トルコの都市の一覧」を参照

トルコの都市人口率は2003年時点で 66.3 % であり、世界平均より20ポイント高く、比較的都市への人口集中が進んでいるといえる。三大都市圏として2大陸にまたがるイスタンブール（都市的地域人口1137万2000人、2007年）、首都アンカラ（372万9000人）、港湾都市イズミル（264万9000人）が挙げられる。その他、都市的地域人口が100万人を超える都市としては、ブルサ（156万2000人）とアダナ（153万人）があり、また同50万人を超える都市は、ガズィアンテプ、コンヤ、アンタルヤ、カイセリ、メルシン、エスキシェヒル、ディヤルバクル、サムスンである。このうち、アナトリア高原など山岳部に位置する都市は、アンカラ、ガズィアンテプ、コンヤ、ディヤルバクル、カイセリ。国の東部には小規模な都市が目立ち、特に東北部、または黒海沿岸には都市への人口の集中があまり見られない。

• アンカラ - 首都
• イスタンブール - 最大の都市
• アクサライ
• アダナ
• アンタキヤ
• アンタルヤ
• イズニク
• イズミル
• ヴァン
• エディルネ
• エスキシェヒル
• エルズィンジャン
• エルズルム
• カイセリ
• ガズィアンテプ
• カルス
• ギョレメ
• クシャダス
• コンヤ
• サフランボル
• サムスン
• スィヴァス
• ダルヤン
• チャナッカレ
• ディヤルバクル
• デニズリ
• トラブゾン
• ネヴシェヒル
• ブルサ
• ベルガマ
• ボル
• ユルギュップ

トルコの国土

地理

トルコの地形図

国土はヨーロッパ大陸とアジア大陸にまたがり、北の黒海と南のエーゲ海・地中海を繋ぐボスポラス海峡・マルマラ海・ダーダネルス海峡によって隔てられる。北緯35度から43度、東経25度から45度に位置し、東西1600ｋｍ、南北800ｋｍに及ぶ。アナトリア半島は中央に広大な高原と海沿いの狭小な平地からなり、高原の東部はチグリス川・ユーフラテス川の源流である。東部イラン国境近くにはヴァン湖とアララト山（国内最高峰で休火山、標高 5137m）がある。

トルコは国内に多くの断層を持つ地震国であり、近年では、1999年のイズミット地震でマルマラ海沿岸の人口密集地が大規模な被害を受けた。なお、他の地震国の多くと同様、国内に数多くの温泉が存在し、中にはヒエラポリス-パムッカレなど世界遺産の中に存在するものもある。

気候

中近東という位置や地中海やエーゲ海からくる印象から、一般に、温暖なイメージととらえられがちであるが、それら沿岸地域を除くと冬は寒冷な国である。エーゲ海・地中海沿岸地方は温暖でケッペンの気候区分では地中海性気候に属し夏は乾燥していて暑く、冬は温暖な気候で保養地となっている。 イスタンブールのあるマルマラ海周辺やヨーロッパトルコ地域は地中海性気候と温暖湿潤気候の中間に属し、夏は他地域よりは涼しく、冬は比較的寒くなり雪も降る。黒海沿岸地方は温暖湿潤気候に属し、年間を通じてトルコで最も降水量が多い場所で深い緑に覆われている。一方、国土の大半を占める内陸部は大陸性気候で寒暖の差が激しく乾燥しており、アンカラなどの中部アナトリア地方はステップ気候や高地地中海性気候に属する。夏は乾燥していて非常に暑くなるが、冬季は積雪も多く、気温が−20°C以下になることも珍しくない。東部アナトリア地方は亜寒帯に属し、冬は非常に寒さが厳しく、東部の標高1500mを超えるような高原地帯では1月の平均気温は−10°Cを下回る。標高1757mにあるエルズルムでは気温がしばしば−30°Cを下回り、−40°Cに達することさえあるほどの酷寒地である。ヴァン県のチャルディラーン (Çaldıran) では1990年1月9日にトルコ国内最低となる−46.4°Cを記録している。高温記録としては1993年8月14日にシリア国境に近いマルディン県のコジャテプ(Kocatepe)で48.8°Cを記録している。

トルコ各地の平年値（統計期間：1960年 - 2012年、出典：トルコ気象庁）

平年値 （月単位）		マルマラ地方			エーゲ海地方		地中海地方			中央アナトリア地方
		エディルネ	イスタンブール	ブルサ	イズミル	デニズリ	アンタルヤ	アダナ	カフラマンマラシュ	アンカラ	コンヤ	カイセリ	エスキシェヒル	スィヴァス	ヨズガト
気候区分		Cfa	Cfa	Cfa	Csa	Csa	Csa	Csa	Csa	BSk	BSk	Dsb	BSk	Dsb	Dsb
平均 気温 (°C)	最暖月	24.7 （7月）	24.4 （7月）	24.5 （7月）	28.0 （7月）	27.4 （7月）	28.4 （7月）	28.5 （8月）	28.4 （8月）	23.5 （7月）	23.6 （7月）	22.6 （7月）	21.7 （7月）	20.2 （7月）	19.7 （7月）
	最寒月	2.6 （1月）	6.5 （1月,2月）	5.2 （1月）	8.8 （1月）	5.8 （1月）	9.8 （1月）	9.6 （1月）	4.8 （1月）	0.3 （1月）	−0.2 （1月）	−1.8 （1月）	−0.1 （1月）	−3.3 （1月）	−1.9 （1月）
降水量 (mm)	最多月	72.9 （12月）	99.1 （12月）	109.6 （12月）	147.5 （12月）	93.0 （12月）	251.2 （12月）	133.9 （12月）	132.6 （12月）	51.2 （5月）	44.8 (12月）	55.0 （4月）	48.4 (12月）	61.6 （4月）	81.1 (12月）
	最少月	24.1 （8月）	20.9 （7月）	16.1 （7月）	1.9 （7月）	8.4 （8月）	1.8 （8月）	5.0 （8月）	0.8 （8月）	10.9 （8月）	5.6 （8月）	5.4 （8月）	8.7 （8月）	6.0 （8月）	8.9 （8月）
平年値 （月単位）		東アナトリア地方							南東アナトリア地方				黒海地方
		アール	アルダハン	カルス	エルズルム	ハッキャリ	マラティヤ	ヴァン	ディヤルバクル	ガズィアンテプ	シャンルウルファ	キリス	ゾングルダク	サムスン	トラブゾン
気候区分		Dfb	Dfb	Dfb	Dfb	Dsa	BSk	Dsa	Csa	Csa	Csa	Csa	Cfb	Cfa	Cfa
平均 気温 (°C)	最暖月	21.2 （7,8月）	16.3 （7月）	17.6 （8月）	19.3 （7,8月）	25.0 （7月）	27.4 （7月）	22.3 （7月）	31.2 （7月）	27.8 （7月）	31.9 （7月）	28.1 （7月）	21.9 （7月）	23.3 （8月）	23.4 （8月）
	最寒月	−10.8 （1月）	−11.4 （1月）	−10.4 （1月）	−9.4 （1月）	−4.7 （1月）	0.1 （1月）	−3.5 （1月）	1.8 （1月）	3.0 （1月）	5.6 （1月）	5.6 （1月）	6.0 （1,2月）	7.3 （2月）	6.9 （2月）
降水量 (mm)	最多月	74.2 （4月）	91.3 （6月）	77.2 （5月）	67.8 （5月）	125.7 （4月）	57.8 （4月）	57.2 （4月）	71.4 （12月）	100.2 （1月）	86.5 （1月）	88.1 （12月）	158.0 （12月）	117.1 （10月）	85.2 （11月）
	最少月	12.3 （8月）	18.6 （1月）	20.3 （1月）	17.0 (8月）	2.5 （8月）	1.6 (8月）	3.4 （8月）	0.3 (8月）	2.1 （8月）	0.2 (8月）	1.2 （7月）	54.4 （5月）	35.5 （7月）	32.8 （7月）

• 最暖月22°C未満・・・薄水色
• 最寒月−3°C未満（= 亜寒帯 (D) の条件）・・・薄水色、水色、青色

経済

トルコ最大の都市イスタンブール。

詳細は「トルコの経済」を参照

IMFによると、2013年のトルコのGDPは8,200億ドル（約88兆円）であり、世界第18位である。一人当たりのGDPは10,721ドルで、世界平均を若干上回る。 産業は近代化が進められた工業・商業と、伝統的な農業とからなり、農業人口が国民のおよそ40%を占める。漁業も目立たないが沿岸部では比較的盛んで、領海問題や公海上の漁獲量を巡る国際問題が起きることもある。

工業

工業は軽工業が中心で、繊維・衣類分野の輸出大国である。近年では、世界の大手自動車メーカーと国内の大手財閥との合弁事業が大きな柱となっており、ヨーロッパ向け自動車輸出が有力な外貨獲得源になっている。具体的には、国内最大の財閥であるサバンジュ財閥と日本のトヨタ自動車、国内2位の財閥であるコチ財閥とイタリアのフィアット、国内4位の財閥であるオヤック財閥とフランスのルノーが挙げられる。また、コチ財閥のアルチェリッキ・ベコ、ゾルル財閥のヴェステルなど、家電・エレクトロニクス部門の成長も期待されている。

農業

ただし、工業化が進んでいるのは北西部のマルマラ海沿岸地域がほとんどで、観光収入の多い地中海・エーゲ海沿岸地域と、首都アンカラ周辺地域以外では農業の比重が大きい。とくに東部では、地主制がよく温存されているなど経済近代化の立ち遅れが目立ち、農村部の貧困や地域間の経済格差が大きな問題となっている。

鉱業

トルコの国土は鉱物資源に恵まれている。有機鉱物資源では石炭の埋蔵量が多い。2002年時点では亜炭・褐炭の採掘量が6348万トンに達した。これは世界シェアの7.0%であり、世界第6位に位置する。しかしながら高品位な石炭の生産量はこの1/20に過ぎない。原油（252万トン）と天然ガス（12千兆ジュール）も採掘されている。

金属鉱物資源では、世界第2位（200万トン、世界シェア17.9%）のマグネシウムをはじめ、アンチモン、金、鉄、銅、鉛、ボーキサイトを産出する。

しかしながら、石炭は発電など燃料として国内で消費し、マグネシウムの国際価格が低迷していることから、同国の輸出に占める鉱物資源の割合は低く、4%程度（2002年時点）に過ぎない。

石油・ガスに関してだが、黒海で開発を進め、2002年の段階から生産を始めていたが、近年石油は100億バレル、ガスは1兆5千億立方メートルと莫大な埋蔵量であることが分かった。これにより2023年から40年間にわたって、国内消費分を賄うことができるようになるとの見通しである。

経済成長

100トルコリラ

1990年代の後半から経済は低調で、政府は巨額の債務を抱え、国民は急速なインフレーションに悩まされていた。歴代の政権はインフレの自主的な抑制に失敗し、2000年からIMFの改革プログラムを受けるに至るが、同年末に金融危機を起こした。この結果、トルコリラの下落から国内消費が急激に落ち込んだ。

2002年以後は若干持ち直し、実質GNP成長率は5%以上に復調、さらに同年末に成立した公正発展党単独安定政権の下でインフレの拡大はおおよそ沈静化した。2005年1月1日には100万トルコリラ (TL) を1新トルコリラ (YTL) とする新通貨を発行し、実質的なデノミネーションが行われた。なお2009年より、新トルコリラは再び「トルコリラ」という名称に変更されている。

近年のGDP成長率は2010年9.2%、2011年8.5%、2012年2.2%となっている。

貿易

色と面積で示したトルコの輸出品目

トルコの貿易は慢性的に赤字が続いている。2003年時点では輸出466億ドルに対し、輸入656億ドルであった。ただし、サービス収支、例えば観光による収入（90億ドル、2002年）、所得収支、例えば海外の出稼ぎからの送金などが多額に上るため、経常収支はほぼバランスが取れている。

輸出・輸入とも過半数を工業製品が占める。世界第2位の生産量を占める毛織物のほか、毛糸、綿糸、綿織物、化学繊維などの生産量がいずれも世界の上位10位に含まれる、厚みのある繊維産業が輸出に貢献している。衣料品を輸出し、機械類を輸入するという構造である。

輸出品目では工業製品が 83.2%を占め、ついで食料品9.9%、原材料・燃料5.0%である。工業製品では衣類21.1%、繊維・織物 11.1%、自動車10.5%、電気機械8.6%が主力であり、鉄鋼も輸出している。輸出相手国はヨーロッパ圏が主力であり、ドイツ 15.8%、アメリカ合衆国7.9%、連合王国7.8%、イタリア6.8%、フランス6.0%の順である。日本に対する最大の輸出品目はマグロ (21.7%)、ついで衣料品である。

輸入品目でも工業製品が65.9%に達する。ついで原材料・燃料21.3%、食料品4.0%である。品目別では機械類13.4%、電気機械9.2%、自動車7.7%、原油6.9%、繊維・織物5.0%である。輸入相手国も欧州が中心で、ドイツ13.6%、イタリア7.9%、ロシア7.9%、フランス6.0%、連合王国5.0%の順である。日本からの最大の輸入品目は乗用車 (12.1%)、ついで自動車用部品である。

交通

トルコ航空

トルコ高速鉄道

トルコにおいて交通の中心となっているのは、旅客・貨物ともに陸上の道路交通である。鉄道は国鉄 (TCDD) が存在し 10,940 km の路線を保有・運営しているが、きわめて便が少なく不便である。また、駅舎・路線・その他設備は整備が不十分で老朽化が進んでいる。2004年には国鉄は最高時速 160 km の新型車両を導入したが、7月にその新型車両が脱線事故を起こし39名の死者を出した。これは、路線整備が不十分なまま新型車両を見切り発車的に導入したことが原因といわれている。この事故は国鉄の信頼性を一層低下させ、その後鉄道乗客数は激減している。その後、路線の新設や改良に巨額の投資をし始め、2007年4月23日、エスキシェヒール - アンカラ間にて最高時速250kmのトルコ初のトルコ高速鉄道が開通した。その後も、アンカラ－コンヤ間でも完成するなど、各地で高速鉄道建設がすすめられ近代化が図られている。

トルコ政府は道路整備を重視しており、トルコ国内の道路網は2004年現在63,220kmにおよんでいる。また、イスタンブール・アンカラを結ぶ高速道路 (Otoyol) も完成間近となった。貨物輸送はもちろん、短距離・長距離を問わず旅客輸送の中心もバスによる陸上輸送が中心で、大都市・地方都市を問わずトルコの都市には必ず「オトガル」と呼ばれる長距離バスターミナル (Otogal/Terminal) が存在し、非常に多くのバス会社が多数の路線を運行している。また、世俗主義国家であるとはいえイスラム教国であるため、これらのバスでは親子や夫婦などを除き男女の相席をさせることはまずない。

トルコでは雇用所得がまだ低いことや、高額の自動車特別消費税（1600cc未満37%、1600cc以上60%、2000cc以上84%）、非常に高価なガソリン価格（2008年現在1リットル当たり3.15YTL（約280円）程度）のために、自家用車の普及はあまり進んでいない。また、農村部においては現在でも人的移動や農作物の運搬のためにトラクターや馬を用いることはごく普通である。農村部や地方都市において露天バザールが開催される日には、アンカラやイスタンブールとはかけ離れたこれらの光景をよく目にすることができる。

国民

トルコ共和国の位置するバルカン半島やアナトリア半島は、古来より多くの民族が頻繁に往来した要衝の地であり、複雑で重層的な混血と混住の歴史を繰り返してきた。現在のトルコ共和国成立の過程にも、これらの地域事情が色濃く反映されている。

民族

1910年時点での小アジアの民族分布。青がギリシャ人、赤がトルコ人、黄色がアルメニア人、茶色がクルド人居住地域

トルコ共和国以前に存在した多言語、多宗教国家のオスマン帝国では、このような地域事情を汲み取って「ゆるやかな統治」を目指して統治を行い、帝国では信仰の自由を大幅に認めていたため、住民にオスマン帝国民という意識はほとんどなかった。各自の信奉するイスラム教や東方教会のキリスト教（ギリシア正教、アルメニア正教、シリア正教）といった宗教に分かれ、さらに言語ごとに細かいグループに分かれて宗教・言語のエスニック・グループの集団が存在し、イスラム教徒ではトルコ語、クルド語、アルバニア系、などの母語グループに分かれていた。この集団が、永らく人々のアイデンティティ形成と維持に主導的な役割を果たしてきたといえる。このため、国民国家としてのトルコ共和国成立に伴い、国内における民族意識（ナショナリズム）の醸成が急務となっていたが、国内最大多数派であるトルコ人ですら、何をもってトルコ人と定義するのかを画一的に判断することが非常に困難であった。このことは、1830年のギリシャ独立以降、トルコと隣国ギリシャ間でバルカン半島とアナトリア半島をめぐり領土紛争の勃発する要因となり、1922年に紛争の抜本的解決を目的に締結されたローザンヌ条約と住民交換協定では、トルコ国内に住む正教会信者のトルコ語話者は「ギリシャ人」、逆にギリシャ国内に住むイスラム教徒のギリシャ語話者は「トルコ人」と規定され、それぞれの宗教が多数派を形成する国々への出国を余儀なくされている。

こうした経緯もあり、長年国内の民族構成に関する正確な調査が実施されず、トルコ政府は、国内に居住するトルコ国民を一体として取り扱い、国民はすべてトルコ語を母語とする均質な「トルコ人」であるという建前を取っていた。これが新生トルコを国際的に認知したローザンヌ条約におけるトルコ人の定義であると同時にその時に、トルコにおける少数民族とは非イスラム教のギリシャ人、アルメニア人、ユダヤ人の三民族であることを定義した。しかしながら、実際には共和国成立以前から東部を中心にクルド人をはじめ多くの少数民族が居住する現状を否定することができず、現在では、民族的にトルコ人ではない、あるいはトルコ語を母語としない国民も国内に一定割合存在することを認めてはいるものの、それらが少数民族とは認知していない。

少数派の民族としては、クルド人、アラブ人、ラズ人、ギリシャ人、アルメニア人、ヘムシン人、ザザ人、ガガウズ人などが共和国成立以前から東部を中心に居住している。特に、クルド人はトルコ共和国内でトルコ人に次ぐ多数派を構成しており、その数は1,400～1,950万人と言われている。かつてトルコ政府はトルコ国内にクルド人は存在しないとの立場から、クルド語での放送・出版を禁止する一方、「山岳トルコ人」なる呼称を用いるなど、差別的に扱っていた。しかしながら、現在では少数民族の存在を認める政府の立場から、山岳トルコ人という呼称は用いられることがない。実際問題として長年の同化政策の結果、今や言語がほぼ唯一の民族性のシンボルとなっている。2004年にはクルド語での放送・出版も公に解禁され、旧民主党（DEP : 共和人民党から分離した民主党 (DP) とは別組織）レイラ・ザーナ党首の釈放と同日に、国営放送であるTRTの第3チャンネル (TRT3) においてクルド語放送が行われた。2008年末には24時間クルド語放送を行うためTRTに第6チャンネルが開設され、2009年1月から本放送を開始した。

なお、クルド人はいわゆる北部南東アナトリア地域（南東アナトリア地域）にのみ偏在しているわけではなく、地域により格差はあるものの、トルコ国内の81県全域にある程度のまとまりを持った社会集団として分布している。実際、クルド系政党民主国民党 (DEHAP) はトルコ全域で政治活動を展開し、総選挙において一定の影響力を保持している。1960年以降は全国的な農村部から都市への移住が増加に伴いクルド人も都市部への移住が進み、現在はクルド人の都市居住者と農村部居住者との割合が大幅に変化しているとみられる。ある推計によると、1990年以降最も多数のクルド人が存在するのは、南東アナトリア6県のいずれでもなく、イスタンブール県であるとの結果も存在する。各都市のクルド人は、その多くが所得水準の低い宗教的にも敬虔なイスラム教徒であるといわれており、昨今の都市部における大衆政党として草の根活動を行ってきたイスラム系政党躍進の一因と結びつける見方も存在する。

宗教

イスタンブールを代表するモスクのスルタンアフメト・モスク

宗教構成は、宗教の帰属が身分証明書の記載事項でもあることからかなり正確な調査結果が存在する。それによると、人口の 99 % 以上がムスリム（イスラム教徒）である。一方、各宗派に関しては、身分証明書にその記載事項がないことから、宗教のように詳細な宗派区分の把握ができておらず不明な点も多い。その結果、一般的にはムスリムを信奉するトルコ国民の大半はスンナ派に属するといわれているが、一方で同じイスラム教の中でマイノリティであるアレヴィー派の信奉者がトルコ国内にも相当数存在しているとの主張もあり、一説には20%を越えるとも言われている。

その他の宗教には東方正教会、アルメニア使徒教会、ユダヤ教、カトリック、プロテスタントなどが挙げられるが、オスマン帝国末期からトルコ共和国成立までに至る少数民族排除の歴史的経緯から、いずれもごく少数にとどまる。

一方で、東方正教会の精神的指導者かつ第一人者であるコンスタンディヌーポリ総主教はイスタンブールに居住しており、正教徒がごく少数しか存在しないトルコに東方正教会の中心地がある状況が生み出されている。トルコ国内にある東方正教会の神品を養成するための「ハルキ神学校」は1971年からトルコ政府命令によって閉鎖されており、東方正教会へのトルコ政府からの圧迫の一つとなっている。

言語

公用語のトルコ語のほか、クルド語（クルマンジー）、ザザキ語（ディムリ語、キルマンジュキ語）、チェルケス語派（カバルド語、アディゲ語）、アゼルバイジャン語（南アゼルバイジャン語）、アラビア語（北メソポタミア・アラビア語、アラビア語イラク方言）、バルカン・ガガウズ・トルコ語、ブルガリア語、ギリシア語（ギリシア語ポントス方言）、アルメニア語、カルトヴェリ語派（グルジア語、ラズ語）などが話されている。

人名

1934年に「創姓法」が制定され、全ての国民に姓をもつことが義務付けられたため、上流階級は他のアラブ諸国と同じように先祖の名前や出自に由来する『家名』を姓とし、庶民は父の名、あだ名、居住地名、職業名や、縁起の良い言葉を選んで姓をつけている。婚姻の際は、以前は夫婦同姓のみが認められていたが、2001年の法改正により女性の複合姓が認められ、さらに2014年に最高裁において、婚前の姓のみを名乗ることを認めないことは憲法違反との判決が下され、完全な夫婦別姓も選択可能となったことで、選択的夫婦別姓制度が実現している。

教育

イスタンブール大学

義務教育機関として、8年制の初等教育学校 (ilk öğretim okulu) が置かれ、そのほか4年制（2004年9月入学以降、それ以前は3年制）の高等学校 (lise)、大学 (üniversite) などが置かれている。ほかに就学前教育機関として幼稚園 (anaokulu) なども存在する。初等教育学校を含めほぼ全ての学校が国立だが、私立学校も存在する。ただし、私立学校の1ヶ月間の学費は、給食費・施設費等込みで一般労働者の月収とほぼ同等で、きわめて高価である。

公立高校・公立大学への入学にはそれぞれLGS・ÖSSの受験を必要とし、成績順で入学校を決定する。トルコにも受験競争は存在し、高校入試・大学入試のために塾 (dershane) に通うことも珍しくない。

教員数・教室数はともに十分な数には達しておらず、初等教育学校は午前・午後の二部制である。また学校設備も不十分で、体育館・プールなどは公立学校にはまず存在しない。特に大都市の学校では運動場は狭くコンクリート張りで、バスケットボールやフットサルが精一杯である（地方においては芝生のサッカー場などを持つ学校も多い）。また、図書館も存在しないか、あっても不十分である。学校設備の問題に関しては国も認識し、世界銀行からの融資を受けるなどして改善を図っているが、厳しい財政事情もあって改善が進んでいない。

2004年現在、男子児童の就学率は統計上ほぼ100%に到達したが、女子児童の非就学者は政府発表で65万人程度存在し、トルコ政府は、「さあ、女の子たちを学校へ (Hadi Kızlar Okula)」キャンペーンを展開するなどその解消に努めている。しかし、女子非就学者の問題には、経済事情に加え、男女共学の上、未だ保守的なイスラムを奉ずる地域ではヘッドスカーフ着用禁止の初等教育学校に通わせることを宗教的な観点から問題視する親が存在するという事情もあり、女子非修学者の減少はやや頭打ちの状態である。

トルコでは、イスラム教の教えに基づいた創造論が学校等で公然と教育されており、進化論への検閲行為などの問題が生じている。また、クルド語を教育することはおろか、教育機関などでの「公的な場」で使用することさえ法律で禁止されており、これに違反した場合は国家反逆罪などで起訴される。実際に投獄された一般のクルド人も多い。

文化

メヴレヴィー教団の旋回舞踊

トルコの国土は、ヒッタイト、古代ギリシア、ローマ帝国、イスラームなどさまざまな文明が栄えた地であり、諸文化の混交がトルコ文化の基層となっている。これらの人々が残した数多くの文化遺産、遺跡、歴史的建築が残っており、世界遺産に登録されたものも9件に及ぶ（詳しくはトルコの世界遺産を参照）。トルコの伝統的な文化はこのような基層文化にトルコ人が中央アジアからもたらした要素を加えて、東ヨーロッパから西アジアの諸国と相互に影響を受け合いながら発展してきた。

近現代のオスマン帝国、トルコは、ちょうど日本の文明開化と同じように、西洋文明を積極的に取り入れてきたが、それとともにトルコ文学、演劇、音楽などの近代芸術は、言文一致運動や言語の純化運動、社会運動などと結び付いてトルコ独自の歴史を歩んできた。こうした近代化の一方で、歴史遺産の保全に関しては立ち遅れも見られる。無形文化財ではオスマン古典音楽の演奏者は著しく減少し、また剣術、弓術などいくつかの伝統的な技芸はすでに失われた。有形の遺跡もオスマン帝国時代以来のイスラム以前の建築物に対する無関心は現在も少なからず残っており、多くの遺跡が長らく管理者すら置かれない事実上の放置状態に置かれてきた。近年は、いくつかの有名なギリシャ・ローマ時代の遺跡やイスラム時代の建築が観光化されて管理が行き届くようになったが、依然として多くの遺跡は風化の危機にさらされている。このような状況に対する懸念も表明されているが、その保全対策は財政事情もありほとんどまったく手付かずの状態である。

食文化

詳細は「トルコ料理」を参照

トルコ料理は伝統的に世界三大料理 とされ、ギリシャ料理やシリア地方の料理（レバノン料理など）とよく似通っている。またイスラム教国ではあるが飲酒は自由に行われており、ブドウ から作られ、アニス で香りが付けられたラク が有名。ワインやビールの国産銘柄も多数ある。コーヒー粉末と砂糖を入れた小さな容器を火にかけて煮出すトルココーヒーはユネスコの無形文化遺産に登録された。

文学

21世紀の小説家、オルハン・パムク。2006年にノーベル文学賞を受賞した。

詳細は「トルコ文学」を参照

• ハリデ・エディプ・アドゥヴァル
• ナーズム・ヒクメット
• ヤシャル・ケマル
• オルハン・パムク - ノーベル文学賞（2006年）

音楽

詳細は「トルコ音楽」を参照

伝統的なトルコ音楽の一つオスマン古典音楽はアラブ音楽との関係が深く、現代のアラブ古典音楽で演奏される楽曲の多くはオスマン帝国の帝都イスタンブールに暮らした作曲家が残したものである。

建築

建築は、イランとギリシャ双方の影響を受け、トルコ独自の壮麗なモスクやメドレセなどの建築文化が花開いた。その最盛期を担ったのがミマール・スィナンであり、スレイマン・ジャミィなどに当時の文化を垣間見ることができる。

俗に「トルコ風呂」などと呼ばれている公衆浴場文化（トルコ本国においては性風俗店の意味はなく、伝統的浴場の意である）は、中東地域に広く見られるハンマーム（ハマム）の伝統に連なる。逆に、中東、アラブの後宮として理解されているハレムとは実はトルコ語の語彙であり、多くの宮女を抱えたオスマン帝国の宮廷のイメージが、オリエンタリズム的な幻想に乗って伝えられたものであった。

世界遺産

詳細は「トルコの世界遺産」を参照

トルコ国内には、ユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が11件、複合遺産が2件存在する。

祝祭日

日付	日本語表記	現地語表記	備考
1月1日	元日	Yılbaşı	法令上は祝祭日ではなく休日
4月23日	国民主権と子供の日	Ulusal Egemenlik ve Çocuk Bayramı
5月19日	アタテュルク記念、 青少年とスポーツの日	Atatürk’ü Anma ve Gençlik ve Spor Bayramı
8月30日	戦勝記念日	Zafer Bayramı
10月29日	共和国記念日	Cumhuriyet Bayramı
移動	断食明けの祭り（砂糖の祭）	Ramazan Bayramı	初日の13時から3日半
移動	犠牲祭	Kurban Bayramı	初日の13時から4日半

メディア

インターネット

「トルコにおける検閲」および「2017年トルコのウィキペディア閲覧制限」を参照

トルコでは政治的な理由でネット検閲が行われている。2014年には裁判所の命令がなくてもウェブサイトを遮断したり、インターネットを通じて個人の閲覧記録を収集することを首相に認める法律（インターネット法に関する5641改正法）が可決されている。

そのため、YouTubeなどGoogle関連を含む約3700の外部サイトへのアクセスは政府によってブロックされており、反政府運動の抑え込みや言論統制を理由にFacebookやTwitterなどソーシャル・ネットワーキング・サービス（SNS）も度々ブロックされている。
2017年4月29日にはトルコ政府は国内からのウィキペディアへの通信を遮断したと発表。運輸海事通信省はウィキペディアに政府がテロ組織と連携しているような記事が書かれていることを非難し、「トルコに対して中傷作戦を展開する情報源の一部になっている」と主張している。当局はウィキペディアに対して削除を要請したが、ウィキペディア側は拒否したという。ウィキペディア側が要請に応じた場合、遮断解除を行うとしている。

スポーツ

ヤールギュレシ

トルコにおいて国民的なスポーツとしては、まずサッカー（トルコ語でfutbol:発音フトボル）があげられる。国内には18のプロクラブが参加するスュペル・リグ (Süper Lig) を頂点に2部リーグ、3部リーグ、さらにその下部の地域リーグが置かれ、プロ・アマ合わせれば膨大な数のクラブが存在する。また、サッカークラブの多くは総合スポーツクラブの一部であり、バスケットボール・バレーボールなど、他種目のスポーツチームを同じクラブが抱えることも多い。

トルコはUEFA加盟国であるため、スュペル・リグ上位クラブはUEFAチャンピオンズリーグ・UEFAヨーロッパリーグに参加可能である。その中でもイスタンブールのフェネルバフチェ (Fenerbahçe) ・ガラタサライ (Galatasaray) ・ベシクタシュ (Beşiktaş) とトラブゾンのトラブゾンスポル (Trabzon Spor) は4大クラブと呼ばれ、テレビ・新聞などでの報道量も他に比べ抜群に多い。これらのクラブは実力的にも上位にあるためUEFA主催のリーグに参加することも多い。UEFA主催のリーグに参加するクラブは、半ばトルコ代表として扱われることもあり、これらの強豪は地域にかかわらず全国的に人気がある。また、イスタンブールのフェネルバフチェ・ガラタサライ・ベシクタシュの3クラブは、イスタンブール証券取引所に上場する上場企業でもある。2004-05シーズンのUEFAチャンピオンズリーグの決勝はイスタンブールのアタテュルク・オリンピヤット・スタドゥで行われ、イスタンブールの奇跡が起こった。サッカートルコ代表は2002 FIFAワールドカップで3位に入るなど健闘した。この大会では日本と韓国に勝利しており、同一大会で2つの開催国に勝つという珍しい記録を達成した。また優勝したブラジルには2回敗北している。

ほかにプロスポーツとしてはバスケットボール・バレーボールのプロリーグが存在する。特にバスケットボールはNBAでのトルコ人選手の活躍や2010年に世界選手権が開催されたこともあり、近年人気が上昇している。

また、2005年から2011年まではF1トルコGPが開催されており、WRCのラリー・オブ・ターキーとあわせて、モータースポーツにおける発展も期待できる。

650年の歴史をもつ伝統格闘技としてヤールギュレシ（オイルレスリング）があり、トルコ共和国の国技となっている。アマチュアスポーツとしては、レスリング、重量挙げなどに人気がある。またトルコ人の気風を反映してか、柔道・空手道の道場も非常に多い。

競馬や競走馬の生産も行われており、日本産馬ではディヴァインライトがトルコで種牡馬として供用されている。

写真

• ボスポラス海峡に浮かぶ「乙女の塔」（イスタンブール）

• オルタキョイ・モスクと夕暮れのボスポラス海峡（イスタンブール）

• ユルドゥルム・バヤズィド・モスク（ブルサ）

• セリミエ・モスク（エディルネ）

• アヤソフィア（イスタンブール）

• パムッカレの石灰棚

• タフタル山（オリンポス山）

• オリンポスのダイバー

• マナヴガットの滝

参考文献

• 新井政美 『オスマンvs.ヨーロッパ : 「トルコの脅威」とは何だったのか』 講談社〈講談社選書メチエ〉、2002年。ISBN 4-06-258237-6。
• 新井政美 『トルコ近現代史 : イスラム国家から国民国家へ』 みすず書房、2001年。ISBN 4-622-03388-7。
• 大島直政 『遠くて近い国トルコ』 中央公論社〈中公新書〉、1968年。ISBN 4-12-100162-1。
• 小島剛一 『トルコのもう一つの顔』 中央公論社〈中公新書〉、1991年。ISBN 4-12-101009-4。
• 小島剛一 『漂流するトルコ　続「トルコのもう一つの顔」』 旅行人、2010年。ISBN 4-947-70268-0。
• 『トルコ』 鈴木董、河出書房新社〈暮らしがわかるアジア読本〉、2000年。ISBN 4-309-72468-X。
• 鈴木董 『図説イスタンブール歴史散歩』 大村次郷写真、河出書房新社、1993年。ISBN 4-309-72421-3。
• パット・イエール, リチャード・プランケット, ヴェリティ・キャンベル 『トルコ』 メディアファクトリー〈ロンリープラネットの自由旅行ガイド〉、2004年。ISBN 4-8401-0864-1。
• 松谷浩尚 『現代トルコの政治と外交』 勁草書房〈第三世界研究シリーズ〉、1987年。ISBN 4-326-39872-8。
• デイヴィド・ホサム、護雅夫訳『トルコ人』 みすず書房、1983年
• 国交樹立以前の文献からよみとく トルコ人の日本観 - 川原田喜子、東京外国語大学、2009年

関連項目

• トルコ関係記事の一覧
• トルコの世界遺産
• トルコ料理
• トルコ語
• オスマン語
• オスマン帝国
• ムスタファ・ケマル・アタテュルク
• メフテル（オスマン軍楽、トルコ軍楽）
• ターキッシュアンゴラ（トルコ原産の猫）
• 突厥
• テュルク諸語
• テュルク評議会
• アタテュルクのCM (トルコ興業銀行)
• 大理石
• ゲジェコンドゥ
• 高野あゆ美
• トルコ行進曲

外部リンク

トルコ政府

• トルコ共和国大統領府（トルコ語）

日本政府

• 日本外務省 - トルコ（日本語）

大使館

• 在トルコ日本国大使館（日本語）
• 駐日トルコ共和国大使館（トルコ語）（日本語）

後援組織

• 在日トルコ商工会議所（トルコ語）（英語）（日本語）
• 日本トルコ文化協会（日本語）
• トルコ文化協会（日本語）
• NPO法人 日本トルコ文化交流会（nittoKAI）（日本語）
• NPO法人 大阪トルコ日本協会（日本語）
• トルコ文化センター（TCC）（日本語）

その他

• JETRO - トルコ（日本語）
• JCCME - トルコ（日本語）
• entry at The World Factbook - Turkey（英語）
• トルコ（英語）
• トルコのウィキメディア地図（英語）
• オープンストリートマップには、トルコに関連する地理データがあります。

観光

• トルコ政府観光局（日本語）

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

This article is about the country. For the bird, see Turkey (bird). For other uses, see Turkey (disambiguation).

"Türkiye" redirects here. For the newspaper, see Türkiye (newspaper).

Republic of Turkey Türkiye Cumhuriyeti  (Turkish)
Flag
Anthem:  "İstiklâl Marşı" "The Independence March"
Capital	Ankara 39°55′N 32°50′E
Largest city	Istanbul 41°1′N 28°57′E
Official languages	Turkish
Spoken languages	Turkish Kurmanji Arabic Zaza Kabardian various others
Ethnic groups	Turks Kurds Arabs Laz various others
Demonym	Turkish
Government	Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic
• President	Tayyip Erdoğan
• Prime Minister	Binali Yıldırım
• Meclis Speaker	İsmail Kahraman
Legislature	Grand National Assembly
Formation
• War of Independence	19 May 1919
• Treaty of Lausanne	24 July 1923
• Declaration of Republic	29 October 1923
Area
• Total	783,356 km2 (302,455 sq mi) (36th)
• Water (%)	1.3
Population
• 2016 estimate	79,814,871 (19th) (19th)
• Density	102/km2 (264.2/sq mi) (107th)
GDP (PPP)	2018 estimate
• Total	$2.249 trillion (13th)
• Per capita	$27,634 (45th)
GDP (nominal)	2018 estimate
• Total	$905 billion (17th)
• Per capita	$11,124 (60th)
Gini (2013)	40.0 medium · 56th
HDI (2014)	0.761 high · 72nd
Currency	Turkish lira (₺) (TRY)
Time zone	FET (UTC+3)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
Drives on the	right
Calling code	+90
ISO 3166 code	TR
Internet TLD	.tr
Website www.turkiye.gov.tr

Turkey (/ˈtɜːrki/ ( listen); Turkish: Türkiye [ˈtyɾcije]), officially the Republic of Turkey (Turkish:  Türkiye Cumhuriyeti ; pronounced [ˈtyɾcije d͡ʒumˈhuɾijeti]), is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries with Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the south. The country is encircled by seas on three sides with the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, which together form the Turkish Straits, divide Thrace and Anatolia and separate Europe and Asia. Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the country's citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks. Kurds are the largest minority at about 20% of the population, and other ethnic minorities include Circassians, Albanians, Arabs, Bosniaks and Laz. Minority languages spoken today in Turkey include Kurmanji, Arabic, Zaza, Kabardian and several others.

The area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic age by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Great conquered these lands, the area was Hellenized, a process which continued under the Roman Empire and its transition into the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the 11th century, and their victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 symbolizes the start of Turkification in Anatolia. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish beyliks.

From the end of the 13th century the Ottomans started uniting Turkish principalities in Anatolia and then went on to create an empire that encompassed much of Southeast Europe, West Asia and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak territorial mass and became a world power during the rule of Suleiman the Magnificent in the early modern period. It remained powerful and influential for two more centuries, until important setbacks in the 18th and 19th century forced it to cede strategic territories in Europe, which signalled the loss of its former military strength and wealth. After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, which effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas, the Ottoman Empire decided to join the Central Powers during World War I. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian and Pontic Greek subjects. Following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. The Turkish War of Independence, initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues against occupying Allies, resulted in the abolition of monarchy in 1922 and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Atatürk as its first president. Atatürk enacted numerous reforms, many of which incorporated various aspects of western thought, philosophy, and customs into the new form of Turkish government.

Turkey is a charter member of the UN, an early member of NATO, the IMF and the World Bank, and a founding member of the OECD, OSCE, BSEC, OIC and G-20. After becoming one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949, Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005. Turkey's economy and diplomatic initiatives led to its recognition as a regional power while its location has given it geopolitical and strategic importance throughout history.

Turkey's current administration headed by president Tayyip Erdoğan has reversed many of the earlier reforms, such as Freedom of the Press, a Legislative System of Checks and Balances, and a set of standards for secularism in government, as previously enacted by Atatürk.

Etymology

Main article: Name of Turkey

The name of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye) can be divided into two components: the ethnonym Türk and the abstract suffix –iye meaning "owner", "land of" or "related to" (originally derived from the Greek and Latin suffixes –ia in Tourkia (Τουρκία) and Turchia; and later from the corresponding Arabic suffix –iyya in Turkiyya). The first recorded use of the term "Türk" or "Türük" as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks (Celestial Turks) of Central Asia (c. AD 735). The Turkic self-designation Türk is first attested in reference to the Göktürks in the 6th century AD. A letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan." An early form of the same name may be reflected in the form of "tie-le" (鐵勒) or "tu-jue" (突厥), name given by the Chinese to the people living south of the Altay Mountains of Central Asia as early as 177 BC. The Greek name, Tourkia (Greek: Τουρκία) was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholar Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio, though in his use, "Turks" always referred to Magyars. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the northern shores of the Black and Caspian seas, was referred to as Tourkia (Land of the Turks) in Byzantine sources. However, the Byzantines later began using this name to define the Seljuk-controlled parts of Anatolia in the centuries that followed the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The medieval Greek and Latin terms did not designate the same geographic area now known as Turkey. Instead, they were mostly synonymous with Tartary, a term including Khazaria and the other khaganates of the Central Asian steppe, until the appearance of the Seljuks and the rise of the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century, reflecting the progress of the Turkic expansion.

History

Main article: History of Turkey

See also: History of Anatolia and History of Thrace

Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace

Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of Southeastern Europe

See also: Ancient Anatolians, Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia, and Thracians

Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge, England, by over seven millennia.

The Lion Gate in Hattusa, capital of the Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.

The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC.

Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a temple dating to circa 10,000 BC, while Çatalhöyük is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age.

The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC. Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria. Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC. Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC, when it was conquered by the Medes. The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.

The gymnasium of Sardis, capital of ancient Lydia (c. 1200 BC–546 BC), the successor state of ancient Arzawa (15th–13th centuries BC).

Walls of the acropolis of Troy VIIa, the site of the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC) that inspired Homer's Iliad.

Antiquity

Main article: Classical Anatolia

The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117 AD. The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC. In Northwest Turkey, the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I.

All of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th century BC. The Greco-Persian Wars started when the Greek city states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC. The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC, which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area.

Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC. The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuries of the Christian Era, the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture. From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century CE, large parts of modern-day Turkey were contested between the Romans and neighbouring Parthians through the frequent Roman-Parthian Wars.

Early Christian and Byzantine period

Main articles: Byzantine Anatolia and Hellenistic period

See also: Byzantine Empire, Successors of the Byzantine Empire, and States in late medieval Anatolia

Originally a church, later a mosque, and now a museum, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul was built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 532–537 AD.

In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople, became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This empire, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of present-day Turkey until the Late Middle Ages; although the eastern regions remained in firm Sasanian hands up to the first half of the seventh century. The frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, as part of the centuries long-lasting Roman-Persian Wars, fought between the neighbouring rivalling Byzantines and Sasanians, took place in various parts of present-day Turkey and decided much of the latter's history from the fourth century up to the first half of the seventh century.

Designed by Greek architect Zeno, a native of the city, the Aspendos amphitheatre was built during the Roman period in 161–169 CE.

Mount Nemrut, built by the Armenian Antiochus I Theos of Commagene, is notable for its summit where a number of large statues are erected around what is assumed to be a royal tomb from the 1st century BC.

Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire

Main articles: Seljuk dynasty and Ottoman dynasty

See also: Turkic migration, Mongol invasions of Anatolia, Seljuk Empire, Sultanate of Rum, and Ottoman Empire

Mevlana Museum in Konya was built by the Seljuk Turks in 1274. Konya was the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (Anatolia).

The House of Seljuk was a branch of the Kınık Oğuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the Yabgu Khaganate of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian and Aral Seas, in the 9th century. In the 10th century, the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral homeland into Persia, which became the administrative core of the Great Seljuk Empire, after its foundation by Tughril.

In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting the Turkification process in the area; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Armenia and Anatolia, gradually spreading throughout the region. The slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. Alongside the Turkification of the territory, the culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia, which their eventual successors, the Ottomans, would take over.

In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would evolve over the next 200 years into the Ottoman Empire. In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople.

Topkapı and Dolmabahçe palaces were the primary residences of the Ottoman Sultans and the administrative centre of the empire between 1465 to 1856 and 1856 to 1922, respectively.

In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the empire's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea. Subsequently, a contest started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian Ocean, with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat to the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe. Despite the increasingly prominent European presence, the Ottoman Empire's trade with the east continued to flourish until the second half of the 18th century.

The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, who personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At sea, the Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those in 1538, 1571, 1684 and 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the control of the Mediterranean Sea. In the east, the Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran, until the first half of the 19th century. From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire also fought many wars with the Russian Tsardom and Empire. These were initially about Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern Europe; but starting from the latter half of the 18th century, they became more about the survival of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun to lose its strategic territories on the northern Black Sea coast to the advancing Russians. Between the 18th and the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman, Persian and Russian empires were neighbouring rivals of each other.

Visit of Kaiser Wilhelm II to Constantinople in Oct. 1917 with Mehmed V and Enver Pasha. The Ottomans joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers and suffered heavy losses. Overall, the total number of combatant casualties in the Ottoman forces amounts to just under half of all those mobilised to fight. Of these, more than 800,000 were killed. However, four out of every five Ottoman subjects who died were non-combatants.

From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century, which had been instituted by Mahmud II, were aimed to modernise the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The efforts of Midhat Pasha during the late Tanzimat era led the Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876, which introduced the First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the dissolution of the empire. As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated into the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia, along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians.

The Young Turk Revolution in 1908 restored the Ottoman constitution and parliament 30 years after their suspension by Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1878, which is known as the Second Constitutional Era, but the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas, making sultans Mehmed V and Mehmed VI largely symbolic figureheads with no real political power.

The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the empire's Armenians were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian Genocide. As a result, an estimated 800,000 to 1,500,000 Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge the events as genocide and claims that Armenians were only relocated from the eastern war zone. Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks. Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.

Republic of Turkey

Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey

See also: Atatürk's Reforms

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and first President of the Turkish Republic, visiting Istanbul University after its reorganization in 1933 as a mixed-gender institution of higher education with multiple faculties.

The occupation of Istanbul and Izmir by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.

By 18 September 1922 the Greek, Armenian and French armies were expelled, and the Ankara-based Turkish regime, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalise the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923 led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President and subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman state system (constitutional monarchy) into an essentially Turkish nation state (parliamentary republic) with a secular constitution. With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks).

Eighteen female deputies joined the Turkish Parliament with the 1935 general elections. Turkish women gained the right to vote a decade or more before women in Western European countries like France, Italy, and Belgium, a mark of Atatürk's far-reaching social changes.

İsmet İnönü became Turkey's second President following Atatürk's death on 10 November 1938. In 1939 Turkey annexed the Republic of Hatay. Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the closing stages of the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations. In the same year, the single-party period in Turkey came to an end, with the first multiparty elections in 1946. The Truman Doctrine in 1947 enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece during the Cold War, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and the OEEC for rebuilding European economies. In 1949 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe. The Democratic Party established by Celâl Bayar won the 1950, 1954 and 1957 general elections and stayed in power for a decade, with Adnan Menderes as the Prime Minister and Bayar as the President. After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Turkey subsequently became a founding member of the OECD in 1961, and an associate member of the EEC in 1963.

During the politically unstable periods of the Turkish Republic, the military exercised power directly or through figures like Cemal Gürsel (far right).

The country's tumultuous transition to multiparty democracy was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960, 1971, and 1980, as well as a military memorandum in 1997. Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal.

Following a decade of Cypriot intercommunal violence and the coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organisation, which overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro-Enosis (union with Greece) Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974 by unilaterally exercising Article IV in the Treaty of Guarantee (1960), but without restoring the status quo ante at the end of the military operation. In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognised only by Turkey, was established. As of 2017, negotiations for solving the Cyprus dispute are still ongoing between Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot political leaders.

In 1984, the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), a Kurdish separatist group (listed as a terrorist organization by NATO, the United States and the European Union), began an armed insurgency campaign against Turkey. The conflict has claimed over 40,000 lives to date.

Since the liberalisation of the Turkish economy in the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.

In 2013, widespread protests erupted in many Turkish provinces, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent. On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government. As a reaction to the failed coup d'état, the government is currently carrying out mass purges.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Turkey

Further information: Regions of Turkey and NUTS of Turkey

Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factors shaping the Turkish public administration. When three powers (executive, legislative and judiciary) are taken into account as the main functions of the state, local administrations have little power. Turkey doesn't have a federal system, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government is represented by the province governors (vali) and town governors (kaymakam). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government instead of the mayors (belediye başkanı) or elected by constituents. Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (belediye meclisi) for decision-making on municipal issues.

Within this unitary framework, Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (il or vilayet) for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts (ilçe), for a total of 923 districts. Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions (bölge) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic purposes; this does not refer to an administrative division. The centralised structure of decision-making in Ankara is considered by some academicians as an impediment to good local governance, and occasionally causes resentment in the municipalities of urban centres that are inhabited largely by ethnic minority groups, such as the Kurds. Steps towards decentralisation since 2004 have proven to be a highly controversial topic in Turkey. The efforts to decentralise the administrative structure are also driven by the European Charter of Local Self-Government and with Chapter 22 ("Regional Policy & Coordination of Structural Instruments") of the acquis of the European Union. A decentralisation program for Turkey has been a topic of discussion in the country's academics, politics and the broader public.

Ankara

Kırklareli

Edirne

Tekirdağ

Çanakkale

Balıkesir

Bursa

Yalova

Istanbul

Kocaeli

Sakarya

Düzce

Zonguldak

Bolu

Bilecik

Eskişehir

Kütahya

Manisa

İzmir

Aydın

Muğla

Denizli

Burdur

Uşak

Afyon

Isparta

Antalya

Konya

Mersin

Karaman

Aksaray

Kırşehir

Kırıkkale

Çankırı

Karabük

Bartın

Kastamonu

Sinop

Çorum

Yozgat

Nevşehir

Niğde

Adana

Hatay

Osmaniye

K. Maraş

Kayseri

Sivas

Tokat

Amasya

Samsun

Ordu

Giresun

Erzincan

Malatya

Gaziantep

Kilis

Şanlıurfa

Adıyaman

Gümüşhane

Trabzon

Rize

Bayburt

Erzurum

Artvin

Ardahan

Kars

Ağrı

Iğdır

Tunceli

Elâzığ

Diyarbakır

Mardin

Batman

Siirt

Şırnak

Bitlis

Bingöl

Muş

Van

Hakkâri

Politics

Main article: Politics of Turkey

See also: Constitution of Turkey, Elections in Turkey, and Ministries of Turkey

Tayyip Erdoğan President	Binali Yıldırım Prime Minister

Constitutionally, Turkey is a parliamentary representative democracy. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of secularism. Turkey's constitution governs the legal framework of the country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralised state. The President of the Republic is the head of state and has a largely ceremonial role. The president is elected for a five-year term by direct elections and Tayyip Erdoğan is the first president elected by direct voting.

Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers which make up the government, while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution. The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for all others. The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in the government and is most often the head of the party having the most seats in parliament. The prime minister is Binali Yıldırım, who replaced Ahmet Davutoğlu on 24 May 2016.

Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933 and before most countries, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right to vote. There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts. The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold is 10 percent of the votes.

Supporters of Atatürk's reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from Islamists, representing the two diverging views regarding the role of religion in legislation, education and public life. The Kemalist view supports a form of democracy with a laicist constitution and Westernised secular lifestyle, while maintaining the necessity of state intervention in the economy, education and other public services. Since the 1980s, issues such as income inequality and class distinction have given rise to Islamic populism, a movement that supports a larger role for religion in government policies, and in theory supports obligation to authority, communal solidarity and social justice; though what that entails in practice is often contested. Turkey under Tayyip Erdoğan and the AKP has been described as becoming increasingly authoritarian. Prior to the constitutional referendum in 2017 the Council of Europe saw Turkey drifting towards an autocracy, warning of a "dramatic regression of its democratic order".

As of 2016 the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index rates Turkey at 5.03 (on a 0–10 scale), classifying Turkey as a Hybrid Regime. In 2017 Freedom House rated Turkey at 38 (on a 0–100 scale) as Partly Free. The constitutional referendum was held in April 2017 to change the parliamentary system to a presidential system. Many elements in this constitutional reform package have increased concerns in Europe regarding democracy and separation of powers. The referendum ended in favor of change.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Turkey

See also: Racism in Turkey, Torture in Turkey, and Censorship in Turkey

A view from the Gezi Park protests a view from Taksim Square, Istanbul on 4 June 2013.

Human rights in Turkey have been the subject of some controversy and international condemnation. Between 1998 and 2008 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations, particularly regarding the right to life, and freedom from torture. Other issues, such as Kurdish rights, women's rights, LGBT rights, and press freedom, have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU.

According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged one of the world's biggest crackdowns on media freedom. A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state activities" such as the Ergenekon and Balyoz cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such as "denigrating Turkishness" or "insulting Islam" in an effort to sow self-censorship. As of 2017, the CPJ identified 81 jailed journalists in Turkey (including the editorial staff of Cumhuriyet, Turkey's oldest newspaper still in circulation), all directly held for their published work (ranking 1st in the world, more than in Iran, Eritrea or China); while Freemuse identified 9 musicians imprisoned for their work (ranking 3rd after Russia and China). A former US State Department spokesman, Philip J. Crowley, said that the United States had "broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey." Turkey's media is rated as not free by Freedom House. In its resolution "The functioning of democratic institutions in Turkey" on 22 June 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that "recent developments in Turkey pertaining to freedom of the media and of expression, erosion of the rule of law and the human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in south-east Turkey have (...) raised serious questions about the functioning of its democratic institutions."

On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party. In reaction to the failed coup d'état on 15 July 2016, over 125,000 judges, teachers, police and civil servants have been suspended or dismissed, 36,000 have been formally arrested, and 130 media organisations, including 16 television broadcasters and 45 newspapers, have been closed by the government of Turkey.

On 29 April 2017, Turkish authorities blocked online access to Wikipedia in all languages across Turkey. The restrictions were imposed in the context of the 2016–17 purges following the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, a few weeks after a significant constitutional referendum, and following more selective partial blocking of Wikipedia content in previous years. Following the ban, Jimmy Wales, Wikipedia's founder, was disinvited from the World Cities Expo in Istanbul from 15 to 18 May. Turkish law professor Yaman Akdeniz estimates that wikipedia is one of about 127,000 websites blocked by Turkish authorities. An estimated 45 percent of Turks have circumvented the Internet blocks, at one time or another, by using a virtual private network (VPN).

Law

Main articles: Judicial system of Turkey and Law enforcement in Turkey

Bas-relief of the Ottoman emperor Suleiman the Magnificent, known in Turkish as "the Lawgiver", in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Turkey's judicial system has been wholly integrated with the system of continental Europe. For instance, the Turkish Civil Code has been modified by incorporating elements mainly of the Swiss Civil Code and Code of Obligations, and the German Commercial Code. The Administrative Code bears similarities with its French counterpart, and the Penal Code with its Italian counterpart.

Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this principle, judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation. The independence and organisation of the courts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organisation, and the powers and duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution.

According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organisation, duties and jurisdiction of the courts, their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the aforementioned article of the Turkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts and Military Courts. Each category includes first instance courts and high courts. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that cannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system.

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several departments (such as the General Directorate of Security and Gendarmerie General Command) and agencies, all acting under the command of the Prime Minister of Turkey or mostly the Minister of Internal Affairs. According to figures released by the Justice Ministry, there are 100,000 people in Turkish prisons as of November 2008, a doubling since 2000.

In the years of government by the AKP and Tayyip Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been considered in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors, and in their pursuit of public duty. The Turkey 2015 report of the European Commission stated that "the independence of the judiciary and respect of the principle of separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political pressure."

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Turkey

Leaders of the G-20 at the 2015 Antalya summit in Turkey.

Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945), the OECD (1961), the OIC (1969), the OSCE (1973), the ECO (1985), the BSEC (1992), the D-8 (1997) and the G-20 (1999). Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and 2009–2010. In 2012 Turkey became a dialogue member of the SCO and in 2013, became a member of the ACD.

After becoming one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949, Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started full membership negotiations with the European Union in 2005.

In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949, applied for associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of the European Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since 2005. Today, EU membership is considered as a state policy and a strategic target by Turkey. Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the country's EU accession bid.

The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy is the country's long-standing strategic alliance with the United States. The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with Washington. Subsequently Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union. In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.

The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the second largest standing military force in NATO, after the US Armed Forces. Turkey joined the alliance in 1952.

The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia, thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit from the Caspian Sea basin to Europe. However, in 1993, Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia in a gesture of support to Azerbaijan (a Turkic state in the Caucasus region) during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, and it remains closed.

Under the AKP government, Turkey's influence has grown in the formerly Ottoman territories of the Middle East and the Balkans, based on the "strategic depth" doctrine (a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for defining Turkey's increased engagement in regional foreign policy issues), also called Neo-Ottomanism. Following the Arab Spring in December 2010, the choices made by the AKP government for supporting certain political opposition groups in the affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states, such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, and Egypt after the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi. As of 2016, Turkey doesn't have an ambassador in Syria and Egypt. Diplomatic relations with Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010, but were normalised following a deal in June 2016. These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East Mediterranean, where rich natural gas fields have recently been discovered; in sharp contrast with the original goals that were set by the former Foreign Minister (later Prime Minister) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his "zero problems with neighbours" foreign policy doctrine. In 2015, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a "strategic alliance" against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. However, following the rapprochement with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its stance regarding the solution of the conflict in Syria.

Military

Main article: Turkish Armed Forces

See also: Defense industry of Turkey

Turkey is one of nine partner states in the F-35 JSF program (left) and one of the eight participants in the Airbus A400M Atlas project (right).

The Turkish Armed Forces consists of the Land Forces, the Naval Forces and the Air Force. The Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard operate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime, although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commands respectively in wartime, during which they have both internal law enforcement and military functions. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President and is responsible to the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.

The MILGEM project aims to design and build locally a fleet of hi-tech stealth multipurpose corvettes and frigates. TCG Heybeliada is one of the warships built under the scope of this project.

Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year, dependent on education and job location. Turkey does not recognise conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.

Turkey has the second largest standing military force in NATO, after the US Armed Forces, with an estimated strength of 495,000 deployable forces, according to a 2011 NATO estimate. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO.

Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia, Horn of Africa and supported the coalition forces in the First Gulf War. Turkey maintains a controversial 36,000 troop-strong force in Northern Cyprus, contributes military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force, Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and takes part in the EU Battlegroups while assisting Iraqi Kurdistan and Somalia with security. TAF has overseas military bases in Iraq, Qatar and in Somalia.

According to 2016 Global Peace Index, Turkey ranked 145th out of 163 countries in the world, mainly because of its conflict with Kurdish insurgents, its invasion of Cyprus and the military intervention in Syria.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Turkey

Topographic map of Turkey

Turkey is a transcontinental Eurasian country. Asian Turkey, which includes 97 percent of the country, is separated from European Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. European Turkey comprises 3 percent of the country. The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (990 miles) long and 800 kilometres (500 miles) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape. It lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 25° and 45° E. Turkey's land area, including lakes, occupies 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles), of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 square miles) are in Southwest Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,175 square miles) in Europe. Turkey is the world's 37th-largest country in terms of area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.

A photograph of Lake Van and the Armenian Church of Akhtamar. Van is the largest lake in the country and is located in eastern Anatolia.

The European section of Turkey, East Thrace (the easternmost region of the Balkan peninsula), forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country is comprised mostly by the peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. Eastern Turkey, located within the western plateau of the Armenian Highlands, has a more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras, and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet), and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country. Southeastern Turkey is located within the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.

Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.

Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey that led to the creation of the Black Sea. The North Anatolian Fault Line runs across the north of the country from west to east, along which major earthquakes took place in history. The latest of those big earthquakes was the 1999 İzmit earthquake.

Biodiversity

Main articles: Flora and vegetation of Turkey and Wildlife of Turkey

See also: Environmental issues in Turkey

Sümela Monastery on the Pontic Mountains. These mountains form an ecoregion with diverse temperate rainforest types, flora and fauna.

Turkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity. Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture, and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for humankind still grow in Turkey. The diversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora. The number of animal species in the whole of Europe is around 60,000, while in Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 counting the subspecies).

The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper. The narrow coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the world's few temperate rainforests. The Turkish pine is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troya National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.

Ankara, the capital of Turkey, is renowned for the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat. Another national cat breed of Turkey is the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Anatolian Shepherd, Kangal, Malaklı and Akbaş.

The last confirmed death of an Anatolian leopard, closely related to the Persian (Caucasian) leopard and native to the western regions of Anatolia, took place in the Bağözü village of the Beypazarı district in Ankara Province on 17 January 1974. The Persian (Caucasian) leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey. The Caspian tiger is an extinct tiger subspecies (closely related to the Siberian tiger) which lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century, with the last confirmed death in Uludere, February 1970. The Eurasian lynx and the European wildcat are other felid species which are currently found in the forests of Turkey.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Turkey

Köppen climate types of Turkey

Climate diagram of Turkey

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of that coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.

The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no more than a few days. However snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.

Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.

Winters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia. Snow may remain at least 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures often above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day. Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres (16 inches), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall is often less than 300 millimetres (12 inches). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and August are the driest.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Turkey

Skyscrapers of Levent business district in Istanbul, Turkey's largest city and leading economic centre.

Turkey has the world's 13th largest GDP by PPP and 17th largest nominal GDP. The country is among the founding members of the OECD and the G-20.

The EU – Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalisation of tariff rates, and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy. Turkey's exports were $143.5 billion in 2011 and reached $163 billion in 2012 (main export partners in 2012: Germany 8.6%, Iraq 7.1%, Iran 6.5%, UK 5.7%, UAE 5.4%). However, larger imports which amounted to $229 billion in 2012 threatened the balance of trade (main import partners in 2012: Russia 11.3%, Germany 9%, China 9%, US 6%, Italy 5.6%).

Turkey has a sizeable automotive industry, which produced over 1.3 million motor vehicles in 2015, ranking as the 14th largest producer in the world. Turkish shipbuilding exports were worth US$1.2 billion in 2011. The major export markets are Malta, Marshall Islands, Panama and the United Kingdom. Turkish shipyards have 15 floating docks of different sizes and one dry dock. Tuzla, Yalova, and İzmit have developed into dynamic shipbuilding centres. In 2011, there were 70 active shipyards in Turkey, with another 56 being built. Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.

Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe.

Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields.

Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. In 2010, the agricultural sector accounted for 9 percent of GDP, while the industrial sector accounted for 26 percent and the services sector for 65 percent. However, agriculture still accounted for a quarter of employment. In 2004, it was estimated that 46 percent of total disposable income was received by the top 20 percent of income earners, while the lowest 20 percent received only 6 percent. The rate of female employment in Turkey was 30 percent in 2012, the lowest among all OECD countries.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) was $8.3 billion in 2012, a figure expected to rise to $15 billion in 2013. In 2012, Fitch Group upgraded Turkey's credit rating to investment grade after an 18-year gap; this was followed by a ratings upgrade by Moody's in May 2013, as the service lifted Turkey's government bond ratings to the lowest investment grade Baa3. In September 2016, Moody's cut Turkey's sovereign debt to junk status. In the economic crisis of 2016 it emerged that the huge debts incurred for investment during the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government since 2002 had mostly been consumed in construction, rather than invested in sustainable economic growth. Private bank debts in Turkey were 6.6 billion TL in 2002 and had increased to 385 billion TL by the end of 2015.

History

Main article: Economic history of Turkey

Atatürk (centre) accompanied by Bayar (to his left) and İnönü (to his right) at the Sümerbank Textile Factory in Nazilli, 9 October 1937.

A view of Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in the early years of the Turkish Republic. Completed in 1892, the Ottoman Central Bank headquarters is seen at left. In 1995 the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to İstinye, while numerous Turkish banks moved their headquarters to the central business districts of Levent and Maslak.

In the early decades of the Turkish Republic, the government (or banks established and owned by the government, such as Türkiye İş Bankası (1924), Sanayi ve Maadin Bankası (1925), Emlak ve Eytam Bankası (1926), Central Bank of Turkey (1930), Sümerbank (1933), İller Bankası (1933), Etibank (1935), Denizbank (1937), Halk Bankası (1938), etc.) had to subsidise most of the industrial projects, due to the lack of a strong private sector. However, in the period between the 1920s and 1950s, a new generation of Turkish entrepreneurs such as Nuri Demirağ, Vehbi Koç, Hacı Ömer Sabancı and Nejat Eczacıbaşı began to establish privately owned factories, some of which evolved into the largest industrial conglomerates that dominate the Turkish economy today, such as Koç Holding, Sabancı Holding and Eczacıbaşı Holding.

During the first six decades of the republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey generally adhered to a quasi-statist approach with strict government planning of the budget and government-imposed limitations over foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, foreign direct investment and private sector participation in certain fields (such as broadcasting, telecommunications, energy, mining, etc.). However, in 1983, Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, market-based model.

The reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of funding from foreign loans, spurred rapid economic growth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (following the earthquake of that year), and 2001; resulting in an average of 4 percent GDP growth per annum between 1981 and 2003. Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing public sector deficits and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak banking sector and increased macroeconomic volatility. Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time, Kemal Derviş, inflation has dropped to single-digit figures for the first time in decades (8% in 2005), investor confidence and foreign investment have soared, and unemployment has fallen (10% in 2005).

Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment and the privatisation of publicly owned industries, and the liberalisation of many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate. The public debt-to-GDP ratio peaked at 75.9 percent during the recession of 2001, falling to an estimated 26.9 percent by 2013.

The real GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 6.8 percent annually, which made Turkey one of the fastest growing economies in the world during that period. However, growth slowed to 1 percent in 2008, and in 2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the global financial crisis, with a recession of 5 percent. The economy was estimated to have returned to 8 percent growth in 2010. According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasing power standard stood at 52 percent of the EU average in 2011.

In the early years of the 21st century, the chronically high inflation was brought under control; this led to the launch of a new currency, the Turkish new lira (Yeni Türk Lirası) in 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy. In 2009, after only four years in circulation, the Turkish new lira was renamed back to the Turkish lira with the introduction of new banknotes and coins (and the withdrawal of the Turkish new lira banknotes and coins that were introduced in 2005), but the ISO 4217 code of the Turkish new lira (TRY) remains in use for the current Turkish lira in the foreign exchange market.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Turkey

Most of the beach resorts in Turkey are located in the Turkish Riviera.

Tourism in Turkey has experienced rapid growth in the last twenty years, and constitutes an important part of the economy. The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism currently promotes Turkish tourism under the Turkey Home name. At its height in 2014, Turkey attracted around 42 million foreign tourists, ranking as the 6th most popular tourist destination in the world. This number however declined to around 36 million in 2015, deteriorated to around 25 million in 2016 and still further in 2017, due to regional uncertanities, political tension with Russia, terrorist attacks and the unfavorable Erdogan regime image abroad. In 2012, 15 percent of the tourists were from Germany, 11 percent from Russia, 8 percent from the United Kingdom, 5 percent from Bulgaria, 4 percent each from Georgia, the Netherlands and Iran, 3 percent from France, 2 percent each from the United States and Syria, and 40 percent from other countries.

Turkey has 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as the "Historic Areas of Istanbul", the "Rock Sites of Cappadocia", the "Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük", "Hattusa: the Hittite Capital", the "Archaeological Site of Troy", "Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape", "Hierapolis – Pamukkale", and "Mount Nemrut"; and 51 World Heritage Sites in tentative list, such as the archaeological sites or historic urban centres of Göbekli Tepe, Gordion, Ephesus, Aphrodisias, Perga, Lycia, Sagalassos, Aizanoi, Zeugma, Ani, Harran, Mardin, Konya and Alanya.

Turkey hosts two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.

Cappadocia is a region created by the erosion of soft volcanic stone by the wind and rain for centuries. The area is a popular tourist destination, having many sites with unique geological, historic, and cultural features.

Infrastructure

Main articles: Transport in Turkey, Communications in Turkey, Energy in Turkey, and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey

Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey, has been selected by Skytrax as Europe's best airline for five years in a row (2011–2015). With destinations in 126 countries worldwide, Turkish Airlines is the largest carrier in the world by number of countries served as of 2016.

In 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey, including 22 international airports. As of 2015, Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 11th busiest airport in the world, serving 31,833,324 passengers between January and July 2014, according to Airports Council International. The new (third) international airport of Istanbul is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per annum. Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey since 1933, was selected by Skytrax as Europe's best airline for five consecutive years in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015. With 435 destinations (51 domestic and 384 international) in 126 countries worldwide, Turkish Airlines is the largest carrier in the world by number of countries served as of 2016.

The Osman Gazi Bridge, located at the Gulf of İzmit, is the fourth-longest suspension bridge in the world by the length of its central span.

As of 2014, the country has a roadway network of 65,623 kilometres (40,776 miles). The total length of the rail network was 10,991 kilometres (6,829 miles) in 2008, including 2,133 kilometres (1,325 miles) of electrified and 457 kilometres (284 miles) of high-speed track. The Turkish State Railways started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014. Opened in 2013, the Marmaray tunnel under the Bosphorus connects the railway and metro lines of Istanbul's European and Asian sides; while the nearby Eurasia Tunnel (2016) provides an undersea road connection for motor vehicles. The Bosphorus Bridge (1973), Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (2016) are the three suspension bridges connecting the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait. The Osman Gazi Bridge (2016) connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit. The planned Çanakkale Bridge will connect the European and Asian shores of the Dardanelles strait.

In 2008, 7,555 kilometres (4,694 mi) of natural gas pipelines and 3,636 kilometres (2,259 mi) of petroleum pipelines spanned the country's territory. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated on 10 May 2005. The Blue Stream, a major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey. A planned undersea pipeline, Turkish Stream, with an annual capacity around 63 billion cubic metres (2,200 billion cubic feet), will allow Turkey to resell Russian gas to Europe while planned Nabucco pipeline will reduce European dependence on Russian energy.

Turkey's internet, which has 42.3 million active users, holds a 'Not Free' ranking in Freedom House's index. Turkish government has constantly blocked websites like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and as of May 2017, Wikipedia is currently inaccessible. According to Twitter's transparency report, Turkey leads in social media censorship.

The Atatürk Dam is the third-largest dam in the world by volume of fill/structure.

In 2013, the energy consumption was 240 billion kilowatt hours. As Turkey imported 72 percent of its energy in 2013, the government decided to invest in nuclear power to reduce imports. Three nuclear power stations are to be built by 2023. Turkey's first nuclear power plants are planned to be built in Mersin's Akkuyu district on the Mediterranean coast; in Sinop's İnceburun district on the Black Sea coast; and in Kırklareli's İğneada district on the Black Sea coast. Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilisation and capacity of geothermal power in the world. Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.

Water supply and sanitation in Turkey is characterised by achievements and challenges. Over the past decades access to drinking water has become almost universal and access to adequate sanitation has also increased substantially. Autonomous utilities have been created in the 16 metropolitan cities of Turkey and cost recovery has been increased, thus providing the basis for the sustainability of service provision. Intermittent supply, which was common in many cities, has become less frequent. In 2004, 61% of the wastewater collected through sewers was being treated. Remaining challenges include the need to further increase wastewater treatment, to reduce the high level of non-revenue water hovering around 50% and to expand access to adequate sanitation in rural areas. The investment required to comply with EU standards in the sector, especially in wastewater treatment, is estimated to be in the order of €2 billion per year, more than double the current level of investment.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Turkey

TAI ranks among the top 100 global players in the aerospace and defence sectors.

TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey. TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey. TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools.

Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish Aerospace Industries, Aselsan, Havelsan, Roketsan, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center (UMET) is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). The Turkish Space Launch System (UFS) is a project to develop the satellite launch capability of Turkey. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations. Türksat is the sole communications satellite operator in Turkey and has launched the Türksat series of satellites into orbit. Göktürk-1 and Göktürk-2 are Turkey's earth observation satellites for reconnaissance, operated by the Ministry of National Defence. BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific earth observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute.

In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina, won the Nobel Chemistry Prize along with Tomas Lindahl and Paul Modrich, for their work on how cells repair damaged DNA. Other notable Turkish scientists include physician Hulusi Behçet who discovered Behçet's disease, and mathematician Cahit Arf who defined the Arf invariant.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Turkey

See also: Turkish people, Minorities in Turkey, and Turkification

Historical populations
Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1927	13,554,000	—
1930	14,440,000	+2.13%
1940	17,728,000	+2.07%
1950	20,807,000	+1.61%
1960	27,506,000	+2.83%
1970	35,321,000	+2.53%
1980	44,439,000	+2.32%
1990	55,120,000	+2.18%
2000	64,252,000	+1.54%
2010	73,003,000	+1.29%
2017	79,815,000	+1.28%
Source: Turkstat

According to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, the country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011, nearly three-quarters of whom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.35 percent each year. Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 age group constitute 67.4 percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3 percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3 percent. In 1927, when the first official census was recorded in the Republic of Turkey, the population was 13.6 million. The largest city in Turkey, Istanbul, is also the largest city in Europe in population, and the third-largest city in Europe in terms of size.

Areas in Turkey with a Kurdish-majority population.

Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish" as a citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnic definition. However, the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. They are estimated at 70–75 percent. Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity. The three "Non-Muslim" minority groups recognised in the Treaty of Lausanne were Armenians, Greeks and Jews. Other ethnic groups include Albanians, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Kurds, Lazs, Pomaks (Bulgarians), Roma.

The Kurds are the largest non-Turkic ethnicity, around 18–25 percent of the population. Kurds are concentrated in the east and southeast of the country, in what is also known as Turkish Kurdistan, making up a majority in the provinces of Tunceli, Bingöl, Muş, Ağrı, Iğdır, Elâzığ, Diyarbakır, Batman, Şırnak, Bitlis, Van, Mardin, Siirt and Hakkari, a near majority in Şanlıurfa province (47%), and a large minority in Kars province (20%). In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish communities exist in all major cities in central and western Turkey, particularly in Istanbul, where there are an estimated 3 million Kurds, making Istanbul the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world. The minorities besides the Kurds are thought to make up an estimated 7–12 percent of the population.

Minority groups other than the three religious minorities recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks and Jews) do not have any official rights, and the use of minority languages is restricted. The term "minority" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, while the Turkish government is frequently criticised for its treatment of minorities. Although minorities are not recognised, state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) broadcasts television and radio programs in minority languages. Also, some minority language classes can be chosen in elementary schools.

An estimated 2.5 percent of the population are international migrants. Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world, including more than 2.8 million Syrian refugees, as of January 2017.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Turkey

Turkish speakers according to the official census of 1965.

The country's official language is Turkish, which is spoken by 85.54 percent of the population a first language. 11.97 percent of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish as mother tongue. Arabic and Zaza are the mother tongues of 2.39 percent of the population, and several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population. Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino (Judesmo), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, and Western Armenian.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Turkey

See also: Secularism in Turkey

Religion in Turkey (2016)

  Sunni Islam (65%)

  Shia Islam (4%)

  Unaffiliated Muslims (14%)

  Christianity (2%)

  Irreligion (7%)

  Spiritual but not religious (6%)

  Other religions (2%)

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.

According to the latest sources by Ipsos, in 2016 Islam was the major religion in Turkey comprising only 82% of the total population, followed by the unaffiliated people who comprised 13% of the population, and Christianity with 2%.

The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the years since the formation of Islamist parties. For many decades, the wearing of the hijab was banned in schools and government buildings because it was viewed as a symbol of political Islam. However, the ban was lifted from universities in 2011, from government buildings in 2013, from schools in 2014, and from the Armed Forces in 2017. The government of Tayyip Erdoğan and the Justice and Development Party (AKP) pursue the explicit policy agenda of Islamization of education to "raise a devout generation" against secular resistance, in the process causing lost jobs and school for many non-religious citizens of Turkey.

Islam

Main article: Islam in Turkey

Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul is popularly known as the Blue Mosque due to the blue İznik tiles which adorn its interior.

There are no official statistics of people's religious beliefs nor is it asked in the census. According to the government, 99.8% of the Turkish population is Muslim (although some sources give a slightly lower estimate of 96.4 percent) with the most popular sect being the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam. There are also some Sufi Muslims. Roughly 2 percent are non-denominational Muslims. The highest Islamic religious authority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Turkish: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı); it interprets the Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of the country's 80,000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial imams. Some have also complained (see cite) that under the Islamist government of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) and Tayyip Erdoğan, the old role of the Diyanet – maintaining control over the religious sphere of Islam in Turkey – has "largely been turned on its head". Now greatly increased in size, the Diyanet promotes a certain type of conservative (Hanafi Sunni) Islam inside Turkey, issuing fetva which disapprove activities such as "feeding dogs at home, celebrating the western New Year, lotteries, and tattoos"; and projecting this "Turkish Islam" abroad.

Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million, while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation claims that there are around 25 million and according to Aksiyon magazine, the number of Shiite Twelvers (excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2 percent). Under the Sunni Islamist government of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) and Tayyip Erdoğan, an increasing discrimination against and persecution of the Alevi minority has begun.

According to WIN-Gallup International's Global Index of Religiosity and Atheism project, Turkey is the country with most irreligious Muslims in the Islamic world with 73% of its Muslim population. In light of an extensive PEW Global research, only 15% of Muslims in Turkey say prayers for at least one of the five prayers either at home or in a mosque. Another PEW Report suggests that, only 7% to 13% of all Turks think that religion should have an effect on laws directly or indirectly.

Christianity

Main article: Christianity in Turkey

Bulgarian St. Stephen Church in Fatih, Istanbul, is famous for being made of prefabricated cast iron elements in the neo-Gothic style.

Christianity has a long history in present-day Turkey, which is the birthplace of numerous Christian Apostles and Saints, such as Paul of Tarsus, Timothy, Nicholas of Myra, Polycarp of Smyrna and many others. Saint Peter founded one of the first churches in Antioch (Antakya), the location of which is regarded by tradition as the spot where he first preached the Gospel, and where the followers of Jesus were called Christians for the first time in history. The house where Virgin Mary lived the final days of her life until her Assumption (according to Catholic doctrine) or Dormition (according to Orthodox belief), and the tomb of John the Apostle who accompanied her during the voyage to Anatolia after the crucifixion of Jesus, are in Ephesus. The cave churches in Cappadocia were among the hiding places of early Christians during the Roman persecutions against them. The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Constantinople (Istanbul) since the First Council of Constantinople in 381 AD. Two of the five major episcopal sees of the Pentarchy (Constantinople and Antioch) instituted by Justinian the Great in 531 AD were located in present-day Turkey during the Byzantine period.

The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5% (19% non-Muslim) in a population of 16 million (or perhaps as high as 25% of the population of 16 million in 1914 to 2.5% percent in 1927, due to events which had a significant impact on the country's demographic structure, such as the Armenian Genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, and the emigration of Christians that actually began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century. The Wealth Tax on non-Muslims in 1942, the emigration of a portion of Turkish Jews to Israel after 1948, and the ongoing Cyprus dispute which damaged the relations between Turks and Greeks (culminating in the Istanbul pogrom of 6–7 September 1955) were other important events that contributed to the decline of Turkey's non-Muslim population. The discrepancy of 7.5% between the official figure of 17% andf 25% is very possibly possible an undercount: 1.8 million Armenians instead of 1.25 (Enver Pasha stated the number of Armenians was underestimated by 30% in the census of whom 500,000 to 1.1 million were killed), 2.250 million Greeks instead of 1.75 (650,000 Thrace and Constantinople, 550,000 Pontic (350,000 killed), 980,00 Anatolia and Cappadocia 60,000 (400,000 killed); even listed in the census the 375,000 Syriac/Assyrian Christians living in SE Turkey of whom 275,000 were killed) for a total of 4.4 million Christians in a population of 17.4 million or 25.28% or slightly less since 100,000 Greeks had left after the Balkan Wars and before WW1. Etimates of the numbers of Greeks range from 550,000 to 900,000.

Today there are more than 120,000 people of different Christian denominations, representing less than 0.2 percent of Turkey's population, including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics, 18,000 Antiochian Greeks, 5,000 Greek Orthodox, and smaller numbers of Protestants. Currently there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey.

Judaism

Main article: Judaism in Turkey

The Grand Synagogue in Edirne.

The history of Judaism in Turkey goes back to the Romaniote Jews of Anatolia who have been present since at least the 5th century BC. They built ancient places of worship such as the Sardis Synagogue in Lydia and the Priene Synagogue in Ionia. The Sephardi Jews who were expelled from the Iberian peninsula and southern Italy under the control of the Spanish Empire were welcomed into the Ottoman Empire between the late-15th and mid-16th centuries. Despite emigration during the 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population. At present, there are around 26,000 Jews in Turkey, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.

Agnosticism and atheism

According to a 2010 Eurobarometer poll 94% of Turks believed in God while only 1% did not. This indicates that 5% of the population are agnostic with another 1% being explicitly atheist. However, according to another poll by KONDA the percentage of atheism is 2.9%. Atheism Association of Turkey, the first official atheist organisation in Balkans, Caucasus and Middle East, was founded in 2014.

Recent polls suggest that 4.5 million people were irreligious in 2013. The same data also suggests that 85% of all irreligious people are younger than 35.

Education

Main article: Education in Turkey

See also: List of high schools in Turkey and List of universities in Turkey

Istanbul University was founded in 1453 as a Darülfünûn. On 1 August 1933 it was reorganised and became the Republic's first university.

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education. This is compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and high school. Less than half of 25- to 34-year-old Turks have completed at least high school, compared with an OECD average of over 80 percent. Basic education in Turkey is considered to lag behind other OECD countries, with significant differences between high and low performers. Turkey is ranked 32nd out of 34 in the OECD's PISA study. Access to high-quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that some students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are 10 years old. The overall adult literacy rate in 2011 was 94.1 percent; 97.9 percent for males and 90.3 percent for females.

As of 2017, there are 190 universities in Turkey. Entry to higher education depends on the Student Selection and Placement System (ÖSYS). In 2008, the quota of admitted students was 600,000, compared to 1,700,000 who took the higher education exam in 2007. Except for the Open Education Faculties (AÖF) at Anadolu, Istanbul and Atatürk University; entrance is regulated by the national ÖSYS examination, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their performance. According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University (in the 201–225 rank range), followed by Bilkent University and Koç University (both in the 226–250 range), Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University (in the 276–300 bracket). All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board (YÖK), whose head is appointed by the President of Turkey; executive order 676 of October 2016 has created a system where in addition the President directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities. Turkey is a member of the European Higher Education Area and actively participates in the Bologna Process.

In 2016 the Skills Matter survey conducted by OECD found the levels of numeracy and literacy in the adult population of Turkey at rank 30 of the 33 OECD countries surveyed.

In 2017 the theory of evolution was removed from the national curriculum in favour of teaching on the concept of jihad.

Healthcare

Main article: Health care in Turkey

See also: List of hospitals in Turkey

Imperial College of Medicine, currently the Haydarpaşa campus of Marmara University.

Health care in Turkey used to be dominated by a centralised state system run by the Ministry of Health. In 2003, the government introduced a sweeping health reform programme aimed at increasing the ratio of private to state health provision and making healthcare available to a larger share of the population. Turkish Statistical Institute announced that 76.3 billion TL was spent for healthcare in 2012; 79.6 percent of which was covered by the Social Security Institution and 15.4 percent of which was paid directly by the patients. In 2012, there were 29,960 medical institutions in Turkey, and on average one doctor per 583 people and 2.65 beds per 1000 people.

In 2015, life expectancy was 72.6 years for men and 78.9 for women, with an overall average of 75.8.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Turkey

See also: Arts in Turkey, Turkish folklore, and Festivals in Turkey

Whirling Dervishes of the Sufi Mevlevi Order, founded by the followers of the 13th-century Sufi mystic and poet Rumi in Konya, during a Sema. The ceremony is one of the 11 elements of Turkey on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.

Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions, which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today. This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during their migration from Central Asia to the West. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.

Visual arts

Further information: Turkish painting, İznik pottery, Turkish carpet, Turkish miniature, and Turkish illumination

Two Musician Girls (left) and The Tortoise Trainer (right) by Osman Hamdi Bey, at the Pera Museum.

Turkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively starting from the mid 19th century. The very first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University (then the Imperial Military Engineering School) in 1793, mostly for technical purposes. In the late 19th century, human figure in the Western sense was being established in Turkish painting, especially with Osman Hamdi Bey. Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha. The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and even Expressionism, still very influential in Europe. The later "Group D" of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal Tollu, Fikret Mualla, Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the West for more than three decades. Other important movements in Turkish painting were the "Yeniler Grubu" (The Newcomers Group) of the late 1930s; the "On'lar Grubu" (Group of Ten) of the 1940s; the "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the 1950s; and the "Siyah Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the 1960s.

A 13th century Turkish carpet from the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate period, originally at the Alâeddin Mosque in Konya.

Carpet weaving represents a traditional art, dating back to pre-Islamic times. During its long history, the art and craft of the woven carpet has integrated different cultural traditions. Traces of Byzantine design can be detected, Turkic peoples migrating from Central Asia, as well as Armenian people, Caucasian and Kurdic tribes either living in, or migrating to Anatolia, brought with them their traditional designs. The arrival of Islam and the development of the Islamic art also influenced Turkish carpet design. The history of its designs, motifs and ornaments thus reflects the political and ethnic history and diversity of the area of Asia minor. However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute a particular design to a specific ethnic, regional, or even nomadic versus village tradition.

Turkish miniature is an art form, which can be linked to the Persian miniature tradition, as well as strong Chinese artistic influences. The words taswir or nakish were used to define the art of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked in were called Nakkashanes. The miniatures were usually not signed, perhaps because of the rejection of individualism, but also because the works were not created entirely by one person; the head painter designed the composition of the scene, and his apprentices drew the contours (which were called tahrir) with black or colored ink and then painted the miniature without creating an illusion of third dimension. The head painter, and much more often the scribe of the text, were indeed named and depicted in some of the manuscripts. The understanding of perspective was different from that of the nearby European Renaissance painting tradition, and the scene depicted often included different time periods and spaces in one picture. They followed closely the context of the book they were included in, resembling more illustrations rather than standalone works of art.

The earliest examples of Turkish paper marbling are thought to be a copy of the Hâlnâme by the poet Arifî. The text of this manuscript was rendered in a delicate cut paper découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and decorative paper borders. One early master by the name of Şebek is mentioned posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the art known as the Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî, which is dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. Several recipes in the text are accredited to this master. Another famous 18th-century master by the name of Hatip Mehmed Efendi (died 1773) is accredited with developing motifs and perhaps early floral designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these claims. Despite this, marbled motifs are commonly referred to as "Hatip" designs in Turkey today.

Literature and theatre

Main articles: Turkish literature and Theatre of Turkey

Tevfik Fikret is considered the founder of the modern school of Turkish poetry.

Turkish literature is a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts. Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era. The Tanzimat reforms introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: the Edebiyat-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyat (National Literature) movement. The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip movement led by Orhan Veli, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet. The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatised, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Characters of Karagöz and Hacivat.

The origin of Turkish theatre dates back thousands of years to ancient pagan rituals. The dances, music and songs performed during the rituals of the inhabitants of Anatolia millennia ago are the elements from which the first shows originated. These rituals later became theatrical shows. In the 10th century, a blend of traditions occurred between the Seljuk Turks and those of the inhabitants of Anatolia. The interaction between the various tribal societies paved the way for new plays. After the Tanzimat (Reformation) period, characters in Turkish theatre were modernized and plays were performed on European-style stages with the actors wearing European costumes. Following the declaration of the second Constitutional Monarchy in 1908, theatrical activities increased and social problems began to be reflected in the theatre as well as in historical plays. A theatrical conservatoire, Darülbedayi-i Osmani, was established in Istanbul in 1914. During the years of chaos and war, the Darülbedayi-i Osmani continued its activities and attracted the younger generation. Turkish playwrights emerged. Some wrote on romantic subjects, others were interested in social problems and still others dealt with nationalistic themes. There were even those who wrote musicals. In time, Turkish ladies began to appear on stage and this was indeed a revolution of the time, since female roles had only been played by actresses who were members of Turkey’s ethnic minorities. Today, theatre acts are performed by numerous private theatre companies and subsidized companies such as the Turkish State Theatres.

Music and dance

Main articles: Turkish dance and Music of Turkey

See also: Turkish classical music, Turkish folk music, and Turkish music (style)

Bağlama, a traditional stringed musical instrument.

Music of Turkey includes mainly Turkic elements as well as partial influences ranging from Central Asian folk music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman music, Persian music and Balkan music, as well as references to more modern European and American popular music. The roots of traditional music in Turkey span across centuries to a time when the Seljuk Turks migrated to Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization.

With the assimilation of immigrants from various regions the diversity of musical genres and musical instrumentation also expanded. Turkey has also seen documented folk music and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic styles of Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Polish and Jewish communities, among others.

Barış Manço was among the founders of the genre Anatolian rock in the 1960s, which combines rock music with Anatolian folk tunes.

Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a number of regional musical styles. Despite this however, western-style music styles like pop music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 70s and 80s. It became popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a result of an opening economy and society. With the support of Sezen Aksu, the resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Tarkan and Sertab Erener. The late 1990s also saw an emergence of underground music producing alternative Turkish rock, electronica, hip-hop, rap and dance music in opposition to the mainstream corporate pop and arabesque genres, which many believe have become too commercial.

Turkey has a diverse folkloric dance culture. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in the Aegean Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region; Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea Region, Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay in Eastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern Anatolia Region.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Turkey

Further information: Byzantine architecture, Seljuk architecture, and Ottoman architecture

The Grand Post Office (1905–1909) in Istanbul and the first Ziraat Bank headquarters (1925–1929) in Ankara are among the examples of Turkish Neoclassical architecture in the early 20th century.

The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years. Mimar Sinan (c.1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings which were constructed in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.

Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of Ottoman court architects. The Ottoman era waterfront houses (yalı) on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles during the aforementioned period. The First National Architectural Movement (Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) in the early 20th century sought to create a new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The movement was also labelled Turkish Neoclassical or the National Architectural Renaissance. The leading architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953). Notable buildings from this era are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922), Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926), State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930), Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928), the first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929), the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara (1926–1929), Bebek Mosque, and Kamer Hatun Mosque.

Yalı of Ahmet Afif Pasha in Yeniköy, Istanbul: one of 620 historic waterfront houses along the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait.

The traditional houses of Safranbolu, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1994, are among the renowned examples of Ottoman architecture.

Cuisine

Main article: Turkish cuisine

Further information: Ottoman cuisine

Turkish coffee with Turkish delight. Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage of Turks.

Turkish cuisine is regarded as one of the most prominent in the world, its popularity is largely owed to the cultural influences of the Ottoman Empire and partly because of its major tourism industry. It is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which can be described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian, Caucasian, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Balkan cuisines. The country's position between the East and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks gain complete control of major trade routes, and an ideal environment allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's six hundred-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in olive oil, and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. The empire, eventually spanning from Austria to northern Africa, used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I (1914–1918) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and western fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.

Döner kebab being sliced.

An 80-layer dough baklava.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Turkey

See also: Football in Turkey

Turkey won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship.

The most popular sport in Turkey is association football (soccer). Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000. The Turkish national football team has won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The men's national basketball team won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and at the EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by Turkey. The basketballing team is one of the most successful in the Mediterranean Games. Basketball club Anadolu Efes S.K. won the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, won silver at the 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup, and won bronze at the Euroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001. Basketball club Beşiktaş won the 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge. Galatasaray won the 2015–16 Eurocup, while in the same season, Fenerbahçe won the silver medal in the 2015–16 Euroleague. Fenerbahçe managed to win the gold medal in the 2016–17 season. The final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray. The women's national basketball team won the silver medal at the EuroBasket Women 2011 and the bronze medal at the EuroBasket Women 2013. Along with the men's team the women's team is one of the most successful in the Mediterranean Games.

Turkey won the gold medal at the 2015 European Games.

Kenan Sofuoğlu won the highest number of Supersport World Championship titles.

The women's national volleyball team won the gold medal at the 2015 European Games, the silver medal at the 2003 European Championship, the bronze medal at the 2011 European Championship, and the bronze medal at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. They also won multiple medals over multiple decades at the Mediterranean Games. Women's volleyball clubs, namely Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous European championship titles and medals. Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women's Champions League. Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions League, Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 and 2017 FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship.

The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman times. Edirne has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oiled wrestling tournament since 1346, making it the oldest sporting competition in the world. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.

Media and cinema

Main articles: Media in Turkey and Cinema of Turkey

TRT World is the international news platform of the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation.

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use all make up a very vibrant media industry in Turkey. In 2003 a total of 257 television stations and 1,100 radio stations were licensed to operate, and others operated without licenses. Of those licensed, 16 television and 36 radio stations reached national audiences. The majority of the audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available. The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media. By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.

Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Turkish film director, photographer and screenwriter who won the 2014 Palme d'Or

Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations. After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South and Central American countries in 2016. Turkey is today the worlds second largest exporter of television series.

Yeşilçam is the sobriquet that refers to the Turkish film art and industry. The first movie exhibited in the Ottoman Empire was the Lumiere Brothers' 1895 film, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, which was shown in Istanbul in 1896. The first Turkish-made film was a documentary entitled Ayastefanos'taki Rus Abidesinin Yıkılışı (Demolition of the Russian Monument at San Stefano), directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. The first narrative film, Sedat Simavi's The Spy, was released in 1917. Turkey's first sound film was shown in 1931. Turkish directors like Ferzan Özpetek, Nuri Bilge Ceylan and Yılmaz Güney won numerous international awards such as Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.

Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 onwards, with a precipitous decline following the attempted coup in July 2016. As of 2017, at least 81 journalists are imprisoned in Turkey. Ranking 1st in the world, all of them facing anti-state charges, in the wake of an unprecedented crackdown that has included the shuttering of more than 100 news outlets. Freedom House lists Turkey's media as not free. The media crackdowns also extend to Internet censorship with Wikipedia getting blocked since April 2017.

See also

• Index of Turkey-related articles
• Outline of Turkey

Further reading

• Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-615-2. 
• Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004). Turkey Unveiled. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-581-4. 
• Reed, Fred A. (1999). Anatolia Junction: a Journey into Hidden Turkey. Burnaby, B.C.: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p., ill. with b&w photos. ISBN 0-88922-426-9
• Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey. Çitlembik. ISBN 9944-424-01-3. 
• Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN 1-903973-56-2.
• Turkey: A Country Study (1996). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0864-6.
• Cîrlig, Carmen-Cristina (2013). Turkey's regional power aspirations (PDF). Library of the European Parliament. 

External links

General

• turkey.com – Topical multilingual website about Turkey.
• "Turkey". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 
• Turkey profile from the BBC News
• Turkey at Encyclopædia Britannica
• Turkey from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Data on Turkey from OECD
• Better Life Index of Turkey from OECD
• Turkey at DMOZ
• Key Development Forecasts for Turkey from International Futures
• Geographic data related to Turkey at OpenStreetMap

Tourism

• Wikimedia Atlas of Turkey
• Turkey travel guide from Wikivoyage
• Turkey Home – Turkey's Official Tourism Portal
• Official website of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism
• Turkey profile from UNESCO
• Turkey profile from Lonely Planet

Government

• Official website of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey
• Official website of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey

Economy

• Official website of Ministry of the Ministry of Economy
• Economic Survey of Turkey 2016 from OECD
• Macroeconomic Data for Turkey Online

UpToDate Contents

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English Journal

• Plasma urotensin-2 level and Thr21Met but not Ser89Asn polymorphisms of the urotensin-2 gene are associated with migraines.

• Geyik S1, Ergun S2, Kuzudişli S3, Şensoy F4, Temiz E5, Altunışık E6, Korkmaz M5, Dağlı H5, Kul S7, Akçalı A8, Neyal AM8.
• The journal of headache and pain.J Headache Pain.2016 Dec;17(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s10194-016-0623-z. Epub 2016 Apr 18.
• BACKGROUND: Urotensin-II (U-II) is a peptide recognized by its potent vasoconstrictor activity in many vascular events, however the role of urotensin-II in migraine has not been considered yet. The molecular mechanisms and genetics of migraine have not been fully clarified yet, but it is well-known
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• Yalın OÖ1, Uluduz D2, Özge A3, Sungur MA4, Selekler M5, Siva A2.
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• Geyik S1,2, Altunısık E3, Neyal AM4, Taysi S5.
• The journal of headache and pain.J Headache Pain.2016 Dec;17(1):10. doi: 10.1186/s10194-016-0606-0. Epub 2016 Feb 17.
• BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of migraine, but no published studies have examined both oxidative stress levels and oxidative DNA damage on the same patient group.METHODS: In this study, total oxidant status (TOS); total antioxidant status (TAS); oxidative stress inde
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• Creatinine Deiminase Adsorption onto Silicalite-Modified pH-FET for Creation of New Creatinine-Sensitive Biosensor.

• Marchenko SV1, Soldatkin OO2,3, Kasap BO4, Kurc BA4,5, Soldatkin AP1,6, Dzyadevych SV1,6.
• Nanoscale research letters.Nanoscale Res Lett.2016 Dec;11(1):173. doi: 10.1186/s11671-016-1386-9. Epub 2016 Mar 31.
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