tamarack

Tamarack larch
	Tamarack larch in fall colors, with black spruce in the background
Conservation status
	; Least Concern (IUCN 2.3)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Pinophyta
Class:	Pinopsida
Order:	Pinales
Family:	Pinaceae
Genus:	Larix
Species:	L. laricina
Binomial name
	Larix laricina; (Du Roi) K. Koch
	Natural range of Larix laricina
Synonyms
	Abies microcarpa (Lamb.) Lindl.; Larix alaskensis W.Wight; Larix americana Michx.; Larix fraseri Curtis ex Gordon; Larix intermedia (Du Roi) Lodd. ex J.Forbes; Larix microcarpa (Lamb.) J.Forbes; Larix rubra Steud.; Larix tenuifolia Salisb.; Pinus intermedia Du Roi; Pinus laricina Du Roi; Pinus microcarpa Lamb.;

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/07/11 04:40:58」(JST)

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Larix laricina, commonly known as the tamarack,^[3] hackmatack,^[3] eastern larch,^[3] black larch,^[3] red larch,^[3] American larch ^[3] or juniper. is a species of larch native to Canada, from eastern Yukon and Inuvik, Northwest Territories east to Newfoundland, and also south into the upper northeastern United States from Minnesota to Cranesville Swamp, Maryland; there is also an isolated population in central Alaska.^[4] The word tamarack is the Algonquian name for the species and means "wood used for snowshoes."

Description

Larix laricina is a small to medium-size boreal coniferous and deciduous tree reaching 10–20 metres (33–66 ft) tall, with a trunk up to 60 centimetres (24 in) diameter. Tamaracks and Larches (Larix species) are deciduous conifers. The bark is tight and flaky, pink, but under flaking bark it can appear reddish. The leaves are needle-like, 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) short, light blue-green, turning bright yellow before they fall in the autumn, leaving the pale pinkish-brown shoots bare until the next spring. The needles are produced spirally on long shoots and in dense clusters on long woody spur shoots. The cones are the smallest of any larch, only 1–2.3 cm (0.4–0.9 in) long, with 12-25 seed scales; they are bright red, turning brown and opening to release the seeds when mature, 4 to 6 months after pollination.^[5]

Key characteristics:^[6]

The needles are normally borne on a short shoot in groups of 10–20 needles.
The larch is deciduous and the needles turn yellow in autumn.
The seed cones are small, less than 2 cm (0.8 in) long, with lustrous brown scales.
Larch are commonly found in swamps, fens, bogs, and other low-land areas.

Distribution and ecology

Tamarack larch foliage and cones in August. The lighter brown cones are from the current season; the darker brown cones are mature cones from previous seasons.

Tamaracks are very cold tolerant, able to survive temperatures down to at least −65 °C (−85 °F), and commonly occurs at the Arctic tree line at the edge of the tundra. Trees in these severe climatic conditions are smaller than farther south, often only 5 m (15 ft) tall. They can tolerate a wide range of soil conditions but grow most commonly in swamps, bogs, or muskeg in wet to moist organic soils such as sphagnum peat and woody peat. They are also found on mineral soils that range from heavy clay to coarse sand; thus texture does not seem to be limiting. Although tamarack can grow well on calcareous soils, it is not abundant on the limestone areas of eastern Ontario.

Tamarack sapling in a sphagnum bog

Tamarack is commonly an early invader.^[7] Tamarack is generally the first forest tree to invade filled-lake bogs. In the lake states, tamarack may appear first in the sedge mat, sphagnum moss, or not until the bog shrub stage. Farther north, it is the pioneer tree in the bog shrub stage. Tamarack is fairly well adapted to reproduce successfully on burns, so it is one of the common pioneers on sites in the boreal forest immediately after a fire.

The central Alaskan population, separated from the eastern Yukon populations by a gap of about 700 kilometres (430 mi), is treated as a distinct variety Larix laricina var. alaskensis by some botanists, though others argue that it is not sufficiently distinct to be distinguished.

Associated forest cover

Young tree with fall colors

Tamarack forms extensive pure stands in the boreal region of Canada and in northern Minnesota. In the rest of its United States range and in the Maritime Provinces, tamarack is found locally in both pure and mixed stands. It is a major component in the Society of American Foresters (SAF) forest cover types Tamarack and black spruce–tamarack.

Black spruce (Picea mariana) is usually tamarack's main associate in mixed stands on all sites. The other most common associates include balsam fir (Abies balsamea), white spruce (Picea glauca), and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) in the boreal region. In the better organic soil sites in the northern forest region, the most common associates are the northern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis), balsam fir, black ash (Fraxinus nigra), and red maple (Acer rubrum). In Alaska, quaking aspen and tamarack are almost never found together. Additional common associates are American elm (Ulmus americana), balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), Kenai birch (B. papyrifera var. kenaica), and yellow birch (B. alleghaniensis).

Tamarack stands cast light shade and so usually have a dense undergrowth of shrubs and herbs. Because the tree has an extensive range, a great variety of shrubs is associated with it. Dominant tall shrubs include dwarf and swamp birch (Betula glandulosa and Betula pumila), willows (Salix spp.), speckled alder (Alnus rugosa), and red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera). Low shrubs include bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), bog-rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla), leather leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), and small cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos). Characteristically the herbaceous cover includes sedges (Carex spp.), cottongrass (Eriophorum spp.), three-leaved false Solomonseal (Maianthemum trifolium), marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris), marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris), and bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata). Ground cover is usually composed of sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.) and other mosses.

Seed cones and pollen cones

Tamarack is monoecious. Male and female cones are small, either solitary or in groups of 2 or 3, and appear with the needles. Male cones are yellow and are borne mainly on 1- or 2-year-old branchlets. Female cones resemble tiny roses. They are reddish/maroon, have needles at their base which are shorter and bluer than the other needles on the tree. They are borne most commonly on 2 to 4-year-old branchlets, but may also appear on branchlets 5 or more years old. Cones usually are produced on young growth of vigorous trees. On open-grown trees, cones are borne on all parts of the crown. Mature seed cones are brown, oblong-ovoid, and 13 to 19 mm (½ to ¾ in) long.

Uses

Larix laricina bonsai

The wood is tough and durable, but also flexible in thin strips, and was used by the Algonquian people for making snowshoes and other products where toughness was required. The natural crooks located in the stumps and roots are also preferred for creating knees in wooden boats. Currently, the wood is used principally for pulpwood, but also for posts, poles, rough lumber, and fuelwood; Not a major commercial timber species.^[8]

It is also grown as an ornamental tree in gardens in cold regions. Several dwarf cultivars have been created that are available commercially.^[9]^[10] Tamarack is commonly used for bonsai.^[11]

Tamarack poles were used in corduroy roads because of their resistance to rot. Tamarack trees were used before 1917 in Alberta to mark the northeast corner of sections surveyed within townships. They were used by the surveyors because at that time the very rot-resistant wood was readily available in the bush and was light to carry.^{[citation needed]} Their rot resistance was also why they were often used in early water distribution systems.

The aboriginal peoples of Canada's northwest regions used the inner bark as a poultice to treat cuts, infected wounds, frostbite, boils and hemorrhoids. The outer bark and roots are also said to have been used with another plant as a treatment for arthritis, cold and general aches and pains.^[12]

Wildlife use the tree for food and nesting. Porcupines eat the inner bark, snowshoe hares feeds on tamarack seedlings, and red squirrels eat the seeds.^[13] Birds that frequent tamaracks during the summer include the white-throated sparrow, song sparrow, veery, common yellow throat, and Nashville warbler.^[14]

Reaction to competition

Tamarack is very intolerant of shade. Although it can tolerate some shade during the first several years, it must become dominant to survive. When mixed with other species, it must be in the over story. The tree is a good self-pruner, and boles of 25- to 30-year-old trees may be clear for one-half or two-thirds their length.

Because tamarack is very shade-intolerant, it does not become established in its own shade. Consequently, the more tolerant black spruce eventually succeeds tamarack on poor bog sites, whereas northern white-cedar, balsam fir, and swamp hardwoods succeed tamarack on good swamp sites. Recurring sawfly outbreaks throughout the range of tamarack have probably speeded the usual succession to black spruce or other associates.

Various tests on planting and natural reproduction indicate that competing vegetation hinders tamarack establishment.

The shade-intolerance of tamarack dictates the use of even-aged management. Some adaptation of clear cutting or seed-tree cutting is generally considered the best silvicultural system because tamarack seeds apparently germinate better in the open, and the seedlings require practically full light to survive and grow well. Tamarack is also usually wind-firm enough for the seed-tree system to succeed. Satisfactory reestablishment of tamarack, however, often requires some kind of site preparation, such as slash disposal and herbicide spraying.

Damaging agents

The tamarack has thin bark and is therefore highly susceptible to fire damage, except perhaps in older, upland stands. However, the habitat of tamarack, especially south of the boreal forest, is normally wet enough to protect the tree from fire. The tamarack is also susceptible to high winds. Strong winds can uproot large tamarack trees growing in swamps or other wet-land sites where rooting is shallow. It has also been discovered that abnormally high water levels often kill tamarack stands. Those that survive under such conditions usually grow very slowly. Other effects of high water include dieback and the development of adventitious roots and shoots. Wetland road crossings and beaver damming are the primary causes of flooding.

Many insect species are known to be destructive to tamaracks. The larch sawfly is the most destructive. Epidemics occur periodically across Canada and the northern United States and have caused tremendous losses of merchantable tamarack throughout most of the tree's range. Indications are that radial increment declines markedly after 4 to 6 years of outbreak. After 6 to 9 years of moderate to heavy defoliation, the trees die. In southeastern Manitoba and northern Minnesota, however, imported parasites of the sawfly have become established and should reduce the frequency and duration of future outbreaks. Another serious defoliator is the larch casebearer Coleophora laricella. The larch casebearer attacks tamarack of all ages, and several severe outbreaks have caused extensive mortality in some areas. Outbreak severity has lessened in recent years, however, probably due to imported parasites of the casebearer that have become widely established.

Only a few other insects and related organisms (such as mites) that feed on tamarack are known to sometimes cause serious injury. During an outbreak, the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) can severely damage tamarack. The larch-bud moth (Zeiraphera improbana) has had occasional short epidemics, and the spruce spider mite (Oligonychus ununguis) is occasionally found in large numbers on tamarack. The larch-shoot moth (Argyresthia laricella) is widely distributed, but serious injury is unusual. One of the most common bark beetles attacking tamarack is the eastern larch beetle (Dendroctonus simplex), but it feeds mainly on weakened, dying, or dead trees.

Tamarack is a host to many pathogens, but only one cause diseases serious enough to have an economic impact on its culture, the Lachnellula willkommii fungus. It is a relatively new pathogen in Canada, first recorded in 1980 and originating in Europe. The fungus cause large cankers to form and a disease known as Larch Canker which is particularly harmful to the tamarack larch, killing both young and mature trees.^[15] Apart from this, the only common foliage diseases are rusts, such as the leaf rust in eastern and central North America. However, this rust, caused by the fungus Melampsora medusae, and other rusts do little damage to tamarack. The needle-cast fungus Hypodermella laricis has attacked tamarack in Ontario and has the potential for local damage.

References

^ Conifer Specialist Group (1998). "Larix laricina". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2006. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 12 May 2006.
^ The Plant List, Larix laricina (Du Roi) K.Koch
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Earle, Christopher J. "Larix laricina". Gymnosperm Database. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
^ Biota of North America Program 2014 state-level distribution map
^ "Larix laricina". Flora of North America (FNA). Missouri Botanical Garden – via eFloras.org.
^ Barnes, Burton V.; Wagner Jr., Warren H. (September 15, 1981). Michigan Trees. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08018-2.
^ Hogan, C. Michael (November 24, 2008). "Black Spruce". GlobalTwitcher.com. Archived from the original on October 5, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
^ Uchytil, Ronald J. (1991). "Larix laricina". Fire Effects Information System. US Forest Service. External link in |work= (help)
^ "Larix laricina". University of Connecticut. Dwarf forms include: 'Blue Sparkler', with bluish foliage; 'Deborah Waxman', which reaches 4' in time; 'Lanark', which grows very low and wide; and 'Newport Beauty', a tiny form probably never exceeding 2' tall and wide.
^ "Larix Laricina: Cultivar List". Encyclopedia of Conifers. Royal Horticultural Society.
^ Joyce, David (2006). The Art of Natural Bonsai: Replicating Nature's Beauty. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-4027-3524-0. As bonsai, they are my favorite genus because of their speed of growth, hardiness, ease of wiring and shaping, and, most of all, for their beautiful foliage color in spring and autumn.
^ Marles, Robin James (2009). Aboriginal Plant Use in Canada's Northwest Boreal Forest. Canadian Forest Service. ISBN 978-0-660-19869-9.
^ Johnston, William F. (1990). "Larix laricina". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1. Retrieved 2015-12-04 – via Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry (www.na.fs.fed.us).
^ Dawson, Deanna K. 1979. Bird communities associated with succession and management of lowland conifer forests. In Management of north central and northeastern forests for nongame birds: workshop proceedings, 1979. p. 120-131. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report NC-51. North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN.
^ European larch canker Natural Resources Canada

This article incorporates text from the http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/larix/laricina.htm, freely-licensed as a work of the US Fed. Govt.

External links

Earl J.S. Rook, Boundary Waters Compendium, Flora, Fauna, Earth, and Sky, The Natural History of the Northwoods, Trees of the Northwoods, Larix laricina
William F. Johnston, United States Department of Agriculture, National Forest Service, St. Paul Field Office, Tamarack – Silvics of North America

English Journal

Lois gibbs: grassroots organizer and environmental health advocate.

Konrad K.SourceCorrespondence should be sent to: Mr. Kevin Konrad, 25 Tamarack st., Howell, NJ 07731. (kevinkonrad1@gmail.com).
American journal of public health.Am J Public Health.2011 Sep;101(9):1558-9. Epub 2011 Jul 28.
PMID 21799116

Estimation of canopy average mesophyll conductance using δ(13) C of phloem contents.

Ubierna N, Marshall JD.SourceDepartment of Forest Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-1133, USA.
Plant, cell & environment.Plant Cell Environ.2011 Sep;34(9):1521-35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02350.x. Epub 2011 Jun 29.
Conductance to CO(2) inside leaves, known as mesophyll conductance (g(m) ), imposes large limitations on photosynthesis. Because g(m) is difficult to quantify, it is often neglected in calculations of (13) C photosynthetic discrimination. The 'soluble sugar method' estimates g(m) via differences bet
PMID 21554329

Japanese Journal

継手付きプラスチック製短下肢装具の構造上の違いが下垂足を呈する1症例の歩行に与える影響 : 床反力を用いた分析

小原謙一,江口淳子,渡邉進,植田幸一,伊勢眞樹
日本義肢装具学会誌 = Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Prosthetic and Orthotic Education, Research and Development 23(1), 83-87, 2007-01-01
… そこで, 今回は痙縮のない下垂足を呈する男性を対象として, 2枚重ねヒンジ継手に属する摩擦制御継手付きP-AFO (Dream Brace) と可撓性たわみ継手に属する Tamarack 継手付きP-AFO, および, 継手のない靴べら式P-AFO (Shoehorn Brace) を装着した歩行を, 床反力計を用いて定性的にかつ定量的に比較・検討した. …
NAID 10018473565

プラスティック製短下肢装具用足継手の硬度が脳卒中片麻痺者の歩行における下肢関節モーメントに与える影響

"小原謙一,伊勢眞樹"
川崎医療福祉学会誌 16(2), 299-304, 2007
… 脚相の下肢関節モーメントに与える影響について明らかにすることである.対象は健常者7名と片麻痺者2名である.P--AFO用足継手には,Tamarack継手を使用した.歩行中下肢関節モーメント計測には,床反力計と三次元動作解析装置を用いた.実験条件は,裸足,靴べら式P--AFOとTamarack継手付P--AFOであった.その結果,継手硬度のわずかな差では健常者群において影響は認められなかったが,片麻痺者においては硬度が …
NAID 110006276522

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[1] Conifer Specialist Group (1998). "Larix laricina". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2006. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 12 May 2006.

[2] The Plant List, Larix laricina (Du Roi) K.Koch

[GD-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Earle, Christopher J. "Larix laricina". Gymnosperm Database. Retrieved 2011-05-28.

[4] Biota of North America Program 2014 state-level distribution map

[5] "Larix laricina". Flora of North America (FNA). Missouri Botanical Garden – via eFloras.org.

[6] Barnes, Burton V.; Wagner Jr., Warren H. (September 15, 1981). Michigan Trees. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08018-2.

[7] Hogan, C. Michael (November 24, 2008). "Black Spruce". GlobalTwitcher.com. Archived from the original on October 5, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-28.

[FEIS-8] Uchytil, Ronald J. (1991). "Larix laricina". Fire Effects Information System. US Forest Service. External link in |work= (help)

[9] "Larix laricina". University of Connecticut. Dwarf forms include: 'Blue Sparkler', with bluish foliage; 'Deborah Waxman', which reaches 4' in time; 'Lanark', which grows very low and wide; and 'Newport Beauty', a tiny form probably never exceeding 2' tall and wide.

[10] "Larix Laricina: Cultivar List". Encyclopedia of Conifers. Royal Horticultural Society.

[11] Joyce, David (2006). The Art of Natural Bonsai: Replicating Nature's Beauty. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-4027-3524-0. As bonsai, they are my favorite genus because of their speed of growth, hardiness, ease of wiring and shaping, and, most of all, for their beautiful foliage color in spring and autumn.

[12] Marles, Robin James (2009). Aboriginal Plant Use in Canada's Northwest Boreal Forest. Canadian Forest Service. ISBN 978-0-660-19869-9.

[13] Johnston, William F. (1990). "Larix laricina". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1. Retrieved 2015-12-04 – via Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry (www.na.fs.fed.us).

[14] Dawson, Deanna K. 1979. Bird communities associated with succession and management of lowland conifer forests. In Management of north central and northeastern forests for nongame birds: workshop proceedings, 1979. p. 120-131. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report NC-51. North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN.

[15] European larch canker Natural Resources Canada

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