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(of group) in a synergistic or cooperative manner
(of drugs or muscles) in a synergistic or interactive manner
of or relating to the theological doctrine of synergism
used especially of drugs or muscles that work together so the total effect is greater than the sum of the two (or more) (同)interactive

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/04/20 23:55:34」(JST)

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For other uses, see Synergy (disambiguation).

Synergy is two or more things functioning together to produce a result not independently obtainable. The term synergy comes from the Greek word synergia συνεργία from synergos, συνεργός, meaning "working together".^[1]

1 Definitions and usages
2 Drug synergy
3 Biological sciences
4 Pest synergy
5 Toxicological synergy
6 Human synergy
7 Corporate synergy
- 7.1 Marketing
- 7.2 Revenue
- 7.3 Financial
  - 7.3.1 Cash Slack
  - 7.3.2 Debt Capacity
  - 7.3.3 Tax Benefits
- 7.4 Management
- 7.5 Cost
8 Computers
9 Synergy in the media
10 Obligatory Synergies
11 See also
12 References
13 External links

Definitions and usages

In the natural world, synergistic phenomena are ubiquitous, ranging from physics (for example, the different combinations of quarks that produce protons and neutrons) to chemistry (a popular example is water, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen), to the cooperative interactions among the genes in genomes, the division of labor in bacterial colonies, the synergies of scale in multi-cellular organisms, as well as the many different kinds of synergies produced by socially-organized groups, from honeybee colonies to wolf packs and human societies. Even the tools and technologies that are widespread in the natural world represent important sources of synergistic effects. The tools that enabled early hominins to become systematic big-game hunters is a primordial human example.^[2]

In the context of organizational behavior, following the view that a cohesive group is more than the sum of its parts, synergy is the ability of a group to outperform even its best individual member. These conclusions are derived from the studies conducted by Jay Hall on a number of laboratory-based group ranking and prediction tasks. He found that effective groups actively looked for the points in which they disagreed and in consequence encouraged conflicts amongst the participants in the early stages of the discussion. In contrast, the ineffective groups felt a need to establish a common view quickly, used simple decision making methods such as averaging, and focused on completing the task rather than on finding solutions they could agree on.^[3] In a technical context, its meaning is a construct or collection of different elements working together to produce results not obtainable by any of the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, documents: all things required to produce system-level results. The value added by the system as a whole, beyond that contributed independently by the parts, is created primarily by the relationship among the parts, that is, how they are interconnected. In essence, a system constitutes a set of interrelated components working together with a common objective: fulfilling some designated need.^[4]

If used in a business application, synergy means that teamwork will produce an overall better result than if each person within the group were working toward the same goal individually. However, the concept of group cohesion needs to be considered. Group cohesion is that property that is inferred from the number and strength of mutual positive attitudes among members of the group. As the group becomes more cohesive, its functioning is affected in a number of ways. First, the interactions and communication between members increase. Common goals, interests and small size all contribute to this. In addition, group member satisfaction increases as the group provides friendship and support against outside threats.^[5]

There are negative aspects of group cohesion that have an effect on group decision-making and hence on group effectiveness. There are two issues arising. The risky shift phenomenon is the tendency of a group to make decisions that are riskier than those that the group would have recommended individually. Group Polarisation is when individuals in a group begin by taking a moderate stance on an issue regarding a common value and, after having discussed it, end up taking a more extreme stance.^[6]

A second, potential negative consequence of group cohesion is group think. Group think is a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in cohesive group, when the members' striving for unanimity overrides their motivation to appraise realistically the alternative courses of action. Studying the events of several American policy "disasters" such as the failure to anticipate the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) and the Bay of Pigs Invasion fiasco (1961), Irving Janis argued that they were due to the cohesive nature of the committees that made the relevant decisions.^[7]

That decisions made by committees lead to failure in a simple system is noted by Dr. Chris Elliot. His case study looked at IEEE-488, an international standard set by the leading US standards body; it led to a failure of small automation systems using the IEEE-488 standard (which codified a proprietary communications standard HP-IB). But the external devices used for communication were made by two different companies, and the incompatibility between the external devices led to a financial loss for the company. He argues that systems will be safe only if they are designed, not if they emerge by chance.^[8]

The idea of a systemic approach is endorsed by the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive: The successful performance of the health and safety management depends upon the analyzing the causes of incidents and accidents and learning correct lessons from them. The idea is that all events (not just those causing injuries) represent failures in control, and present an opportunity for learning and improvement.^[9] This book describes the principles and management practices, which provide the basis of effective health and safety management. It sets out the issues that need to be addressed, and can be used for developing improvement programs, self-audit, or self-assessment. Its message is that organizations must manage health and safety with the same degree of expertise and to the same standards as other core business activities, if they are to effectively control risks and prevent harm to people.

The term synergy was refined by R. Buckminster Fuller, who analyzed some of its implications more fully^[10] and coined the term Synergetics.^[11]

A dynamic state in which combined action is favored over the difference of individual component actions.
Behavior of whole systems unpredicted by the behavior of their parts taken separately, known as emergent behavior.
The cooperative action of two or more stimuli (or drugs), resulting in a different or greater response than that of the individual stimuli.

Drug synergy

Drug synergy occurs when drugs can interact in ways that enhance or magnify one or more effects, or side-effects, of those drugs. This is sometimes exploited in combination preparations, such as codeine mixed with acetaminophen or ibuprofen to enhance the action of codeine as a pain reliever. This is often seen with recreational drugs, where 5-HTP, a serotonin precursor often used as an antidepressant, is often used prior to, during, and shortly after recreational use of MDMA, as it is alleged to increase the "high" and decreases the "comedown" stages of MDMA use (although most anecdotal evidence has pointed to 5-HTP's moderately muting the effect of MDMA^{[citation needed]}). Other examples include the use of Cannabis with LSD, where the active chemicals in cannabis have been reported to enhance the hallucinatory experience of LSD.^{[citation needed]}.

Negative effects of synergy are a form of contraindication. For example, a combination of depressant drugs that affect the central nervous system (CNS), such as alcohol and Valium, can cause a greater reaction than simply the sum of the individual effects of each drug if they were used separately. In this particular case, the most serious consequence of drug synergy is exaggerated respiratory depression, which can be fatal if left untreated.

Drug synergy can occur both in biological activity and because of pharmacokinetics. Shared metabolic enzymes can cause drugs to remain in the bloodstream much longer in higher concentrations than if individually taken.

Biological sciences

Synergy of various kinds has been advanced by Peter Corning as a causal agency that can explain the progressive evolution of complexity in living systems over the course of time. According to the Synergism Hypothesis, synergistic effects have been the drivers of cooperative relationships of all kinds and at all levels in living systems. The thesis, in a nutshell, is that synergistic effects have often provided functional advantages (economic benefits) in relation to survival and reproduction that have been favored by natural selection. The cooperating parts, elements, or individuals become, in effect, functional “units” of selection in evolutionary change. ^[12] Similarly, environmental systems may react in a non-linear way to perturbations, such as climate change, so that the outcome may be greater than the sum of the individual component alterations. Synergistic responses are a complicating factor in environmental modeling.^[13]

Pest synergy

Pest synergy would occur in a biological host organism population, where, for example, the introduction of parasite A may cause 10% fatalities, and parasite B may also cause 10% loss. When both parasites are present, the losses would normally be expected to total less than 20%, yet, in some cases, losses are significantly greater. In such cases, it is said that the parasites in combination have a synergistic effect.

Toxicological synergy

Toxicological synergy is of concern to the public and regulatory agencies because chemicals individually considered safe might pose unacceptable health or ecological risk in combination. Articles in scientific and lay journals include many definitions of chemical or toxicological synergy, often vague or in conflict with each other. Because toxic interactions are defined relative to the expectation under "no interaction", a determination of synergy (or antagonism) depends on what is meant by "no interaction". The United States Environmental Protection Agency has one of the more detailed and precise definitions of toxic interaction, designed to facilitate risk assessment. In their guidance documents, the no-interaction default assumption is dose addition, so synergy means a mixture response that exceeds that predicted from dose addition. The EPA emphasizes that synergy does not always make a mixture dangerous, nor does antagonism always make the mixture safe; each depends on the predicted risk under dose addition.

For example, a consequence of pesticide use is the risk of health effects. During the registration of pesticides in the United States exhaustive tests are performed to discern health effects on humans at various exposure levels. A regulatory upper limit of presence in foods is then placed on this pesticide. As long as residues in the food stay below this regulatory level, health effects are deemed highly unlikely and the food is considered safe to consume.

However, in normal agricultural practice, it is rare to use only a single pesticide. During the production of a crop, several different materials may be used. Each of them has had determined a regulatory level at which they would be considered individually safe. In many cases, a commercial pesticide is itself a combination of several chemical agents, and thus the safe levels actually represent levels of the mixture. In contrast, a combination created by the end user, such as a farmer, has rarely been tested in that combination. The potential for synergy is then unknown or estimated from data on similar combinations. This lack of information also applies to many of the chemical combinations to which humans are exposed, including residues in food, indoor air contaminants, and occupational exposures to chemicals. Some groups think that the rising rates of cancer, asthma, and other health problems may be caused by these combination exposures; others have alternative explanations. This question will likely be answered only after years of exposure by the population in general and research on chemical toxicity, usually performed on animals. Examples of pesticide synergists include Piperonyl butoxide and MGK 264.^[14]

Human synergy

Human synergy relates to humans. For example, say person A alone is too short to reach an apple on a tree and person B is too short as well. Once person B sits on the shoulders of person A, they are more than tall enough to reach the apple. In this example, the product of their synergy would be one apple. Another case would be two politicians. If each is able to gather one million votes on their own, but together they were able to appeal to 2.5 million voters, their synergy would have produced 500,000 more votes than had they each worked independently. A song is also a good example of human synergy, taking more than one musical part and putting them together to create a song that has a much more dramatic effect than each of the parts when played individually.

A third form of human synergy is when one person is able to complete two separate tasks by doing one action, for example, if a person were asked by a teacher and his boss at work to write an essay on how he could improve his work. A more visual example of this synergy is a drummer's using four separate rhythms to create one drum beat.

Synergy usually arises when two persons with different complementary skills cooperate. In business, cooperation of people with organizational and technical skills happens very often. In general, the most common reason why people cooperate is that it brings a synergy. On the other hand, people tend to specialize just to be able to form groups with high synergy (see also division of labor and teamwork).

Example: Two teams in System Admin working together to combine technical and organizational skills in order to better the client experience, thus creating synergy.

Corporate synergy

Main article: corporate synergy

Corporate synergy occurs when corporations interact congruently. A corporate synergy refers to a financial benefit that a corporation expects to realize when it merges with or acquires another corporation. This type of synergy is a nearly ubiquitous feature of a corporate acquisition and is a negotiating point between the buyer and seller that impacts the final price both parties agree to. There are distinct types of corporate synergies:

Marketing

A marketing synergy refers to the use of information campaigns, studies,and scientific discovery or experimentation for research or development. This promotes the sale of products for varied use or off market sales as well as development of marketing tools and in several cases exaggeration of effects.

Revenue

A revenue synergy refers to the opportunity of a combined corporate entity to generate more revenue than its two predecessor stand-alone companies would be able to generate. For example, if company A sells product X through its sales force, company B sells product Y, and company A decides to buy company B then the new company could use each sales person to sell products X and Y, thereby increasing the revenue that each sales person generates for the company.

In media revenue, synergy is the promotion and sale of a product throughout the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate, e.g. films, soundtracks, or video games.

Financial

Financial synergy gained by the combined firm is a result of number of benefits which flow to the entity as a consequence of acquisition and merger. These benefits may be:

Cash Slack

This is when a firm having number of cash extensive projects acquires the firm which is cash-rich. Thus enabling the new combined firm to enjoy the profits from investing the cash of one firm in the projects of other.

Debt Capacity

If the two firms have no or little capacity to carry debt before combination, it is possible for them to join and gain the capacity to carry the debt through decreased gearing (leverage). Thus creating value for the firm, as Debt is thought to be a cheaper source of finance.

Tax Benefits

It is possible that one firm has unused tax benefits which might be utilized against the profits of the other after combination thus resulting in less tax being paid. However this greatly depends on the tax law of the country.

Management

Synergy in terms of management and in relation to team working refers to the combined effort of individuals as participants of the team. Positive or negative synergy can exist. The condition that exists when the organization's parts interact to produce a joint effect that is greater than the sum of the parts acting alone.

Cost

A cost synergy refers to the opportunity of a combined corporate entity to reduce or eliminate expenses associated with running a business. Cost synergies are realized by eliminating positions that are viewed as duplicate within the merged entity^[15]. Examples include the head quarters office of one of the predecessor companies, certain executives, the human resources department, or other employees of the predecessor companies. This is related to the economic concept of economies of scale.

Computers

Synergy can also be defined as the combination of human strengths and computer strengths, such as advanced chess. Computers can process data much more quickly than humans, but lack the ability to respond meaningfully to arbitrary stimuli.

Synergy in the media

In media economics, synergy is the promotion and sale of a product (and all its versions) throughout the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate,^[16] e.g. films, soundtracks or video games. Walt Disney pioneered synergistic marketing techniques in the 1930s by granting dozens of firms the right to use his Mickey Mouse character in products and ads, and continued to market Disney media through licensing arrangements. These products can help advertise the film itself and thus help to increase the film's sales. For example, the Spider-Man films had toys of webshooters and figures of the characters made, as well as posters and games.^[17] The NBC sitcom 30 Rock often shows the power of synergy, while also poking fun at the use of the term in the corporate world.^[18] They are also a very successful clan on YouTube, and they should recruit Saint.

Obligatory Synergies

When spasticity occurs, such as following a stroke, it manifests in abnormal and stereotypical patterns across multiple joints called obligatory synergies.^[19] They are described as either a flexion synergy or an extension synergy and effect both the upper and lower extremity (see below).^[19] When these patterns occur in a patient, he or she is unable to move a limb segment in isolation of the pattern.^[19] This interferes with normal activities of daily living.^[19] Some aspects of the obligatory synergy patterns however, can be cleverly used to increase function relative to the movement available to the individual. Careful thought should, therefore, be considered in deciding which muscle groups to stretch at specific times during recovery. Obligatory synergy patterns are observed when a patient tries to make a minimal voluntary movement, or as a result of stimulated reflexes.^[19]

The flexion synergy for the upper extremity includes scapular retraction and elevation, shoulder abduction and external rotation, elbow flexion, forearm supination, and wrist and finger flexion.^[19]

The extension synergy for the upper extremity includes scapular protraction, shoulder adduction and internal rotation, elbow extension, forearm pronation, and wrist and finger flexion.^[19]

The flexion synergy for the lower extremity includes hip flexion, abduction and external rotation, knee flexion, ankle dorsiflexion and inversion and toe dorsiflexion.^[19]

The extension synergy for the lower extremity includes hip extension, adduction and internal rotation, knee extension, ankle plantar flexion and inversion, and toe plantar flexion.^[19]

Note that some muscles are not usually involved in these synergy patterns and include the lattisimus dorsi, teres major, serratus anterior, finger extensors, and ankle evertors.^[19]

References

^ The Strategy Reader, Edited by Susan Segal-Horn, The Open University, 2004 Great Britain,ISBN 1-405-12687-6
^ Peter A. Corning, Nature's Magic: Synergy in Evolution and the Fate of Humankind, New York: Cambridge University Press 2003 ISBN 0-521-82547-4; Peter A. Corning, Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution, Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2005 ISBN 0-226-11613-1
^ David Buchanan & Andrzej Huczynski: Organizational behavior, introductory text. Prentice Hall,pp 276,Third Edition 1997 ISBN 0-13-207259-9
^ Benjamin Blanchard, System Engineering Management, pp 8, John Wiley 2004, ISBN 0-471-29176-5
^ David Buchanan & Andrzej Huczynski: Organizational behavior, introductory text, Prentice Hall,pp 275, Third Edition 1997 ISBN 0-13-207259-9
^ David Buchannan & Andrzej Huczynski: Organizational behavior, introductory text. Prentice Hall,pp 280,Third Edition 1997 ISBN 0-13-207259-9
^ David Buchanan & Andrzej Huczynski: Organizational behavior, introductory text. Prentice Hall,pp 283,Third Edition 1997 ISBN 0-13-207259-9
^ :Dr Chris Elliot, System safety and Law, Proceedings of First International Conference on System Safety, Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, pp 344-351(2006)
^ UK Health and Safety Executive, Successful health and safety management, ISBN 978 0 7176 1276 5,(1997)
^ SYNERGETICS Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking by R. Buckminster Fuller (online version)
^ Fuller, R. B., (1975), “Synergetics: Explorations In The Geometry Of Thinking”, in collaboration with E.J. Applewhite. Introduction and contribution by Arthur L. Loeb. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York.
^ Peter A. Corning, The Synergism Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution, New York, McGraw Hill 1983 ISBN 0-07-013166-X; Peter A. Corning, Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution, Chicago,University of Chicago Press 2005 ISBN 0-226-11613-1;Synergy and self-organization in the evolution of complex systems.
^ Myers, N Environmental Unknowns (1995).
^ Pyrethroids and Pyrethrins, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, epa.gov
^ Cost Sinergy, investopedia[1]
^ Campbell, Richard, Christopher R. Martin, and Bettina Fabos. Media & Culture 5: an Introduction to Mass Communication. Fifth Edition 2007 Update ed. Bostin: Bedford St. Martins, 2007. 606.
^ Media Synergy see Linden Dalecki's article in Northwestern's Journal of Integrated Marketing Communications (2008) [2]
^ 30 Rock episode 3.09; Liz: "I hate those corporate things; a bunch of drunk people talking about 'synergy'." Jack: "First of all, never badmouth 'synergy'!"
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j O'Sullivan, S.B. (2007). Stroke: Motor Function. In S. B. O’Sullivan, & T. J. Schmitz (Eds.), Physical Rehabilitation (pp. 720). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company

External links

Look up synergy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

definition and types of synergy
Linden Dalecki on Media Synergy (2008)
Synergism Hypothesis
Buckminster Fuller's definition of Synergy
Synergy and Dysergy in Mereologic Geometries
Synergy. A general discussions forum
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Synergistic Apoptosis-Inducing Antileukemic Effects of Arsenic Trioxide and Mucuna macrocarpa Stem Extract in Human Leukemic Cells via a Reactive Oxygen Species-Dependent Mechanism.

Lu KH, Lee HJ, Huang ML, Lai SC, Ho YL, Chang YS, Chi CW.SourceGraduate Institute of Chinese Pharmaceutical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan.
Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM.Evid Based Complement Alternat Med.2012;2012:921430. Epub 2011 Jul 27.
The objective of this study was to examine the potential of enhancing the antileukemic activity of arsenic trioxide (ATO) by combining it with a folk remedy, crude methanolic extract of Mucuna macrocarpa (CMEMM). Human leukemia cells HL-60, Jurkat, and Molt-3 were treated with various doses of ATO,
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Meningococcal ligands and molecular targets of the host.

Hill DJ, Virji M.SourceSchool of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
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Japanese Journal

Visualization of the synergistic effect of lithium acetate and single-stranded carrier DNA on Saccharomyces cerevisiae transformation.

Pham Tuan Anh,Kawai Shigeyuki,Murata Kousaku
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… In this study, we first confirmed that LiAc and ssDNA synergistically improve the transformation efficiency of S. … Together, the two compounds synergistically enhance the transformation efficiency and frequency. …
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Eed/Sox2 regulatory loop controls ES cell self-renewal through histone methylation and acetylation

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EMBO Journal 30(11), 2190-2204, 2011-07-01
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