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- 悪口,のろい(ののしり)の言葉
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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2014/11/01 00:57:14」(JST)
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"Dirty language" and "Vulgar language" redirect here. For sexual foreplay, see Dirty talk. For other uses, see Common language.
| The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the English-speaking world and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (February 2013) |
In cartoons, profanity is often depicted by substituting symbols ("grawlixes") for words, as a form of non-specific censorship.
Profanity - in its more literal sense - means "offensive words, or religious words, used in a way that shows you do not respect God or holy things", or behaviour showing similar disrespect.[1]
A more general modern meaning is given by Merriam-Webster online dictionary, which defines profanity as "an offensive word" or "offensive language".[2] This second use is also called bad language, strong language, coarse language, foul language, bad words, vulgar language, lewd language, swearing, cursing, cussing, or using expletives. This use is a subset of a language's lexicon that is generally considered to be very impolite, rude or offensive. It can show a debasement of someone or something, or show intense emotion. Profanity in this sense usually takes the form of words or verbal expressions, but can include gestures (such as flipping the middle finger), or other social behaviours that are interpreted as insulting, rude, vulgar, obscene, obnoxious, foul or desecrating.
Contents
- 1 Etymology
- 2 Research into swearing
- 2.1 Perceived severity
- 3 Types of swearing by purpose
- 4 By country
- 4.1 Swearing in the United Kingdom
- 4.1.1 In public
- 4.1.2 In the workplace
- 4.1 Swearing in the United Kingdom
- 5 Broadcasting
- 6 Minced oaths
- 7 Notable instances in popular culture
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 External links
Etymology
The term "profane" originates from classical Latin "profanus", literally "before (outside) the temple". It carried the meaning of either "desecrating what is holy" or "with a secular purpose" as early as the 1450s CE.[3] Profanity represented secular indifference to religion or religious figures, while blasphemy was a more offensive attack on religion and religious figures, considered sinful, and a direct violation of The Ten Commandments.
Profanities, in the original meaning of blasphemous profanity, are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults, which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities.[4][5] An example from Gargantua and Pantagruel is "Christ, look ye, its Mere de ... merde ... shit, Mother of God."[6][7][8]
In English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology. "Shit" has a Germanic root, as, probably, does "fuck".[9] The more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as "defecate" or "excrete", and "fornicate" or "copulate".
Research into swearing
Analyses of recorded conversations reveal that roughly 80–90 spoken words each day – 0.5% to 0.7% of all words – are swear words, with usage varying from 0% to 3.4%. In comparison, first-person plural pronouns (we, us, our) make up 1% of spoken words.[10]
A three-country poll conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in July 2010 found that Canadians swear more often than Americans and British when talking to friends, while Britons are more likely than Canadians and Americans to hear strangers swear during a conversation.[11]
Swearing performs certain psychological functions, and uses particular linguistic and neurological mechanisms; all these are avenues of research. Functionally similar behavior can be observed in chimpanzees, and may contribute to our understanding, notes New York Times author Natalie Angier.[12]
Angier also notes that swearing is a widespread but perhaps underappreciated anger management technique; that "Men generally curse more than women, unless said women are in a sorority, and that university provosts swear more than librarians or the staff members of the university day care center"[12]
Profane language is by no means a recent phenomenon. The Bible records instances of the use of strong language, such as mention of men who "eat their own dung, and drink their own piss" in the Authorized King James Version of 1611's translation of Hebrew text of 2 Kings 18:27. Shakespeare is replete with vulgarisms, though many are no longer readily recognized. Even the oldest traces of human writing include swear words.[citation needed]
Keele University researchers Stephens, Atkins, and Kingston found that swearing relieves the effects of physical pain.[13] Stephens said "I would advise people, if they hurt themselves, to swear".[14] However, the overuse of swear words tends to diminish this effect.[14] The team earned themselves the Ig Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 for the research.
A team of neurologists and psychologists at the UCLA Easton Center for Alzheimer's Disease Research suggested that swearing may help differentiate Alzheimer's disease from frontotemporal dementia.[15]
Neurologist Antonio Damasio noted that despite loss of language due to damage to the language areas of the brain, patients were still often able to swear.[16]
Perceived severity
The relative severity of various British profanities, as perceived by the public, was studied on behalf of the British Broadcasting Standards Commission, the ITC, the BBC, and the Advertising Standards Authority; the results of this jointly commissioned research were published in December 2000 in a paper called "Delete expletives?".[17] It listed the profanities in order of decreasing severity.
A similar survey was carried out in 2009 by New Zealand's Broadcasting Standards Authority. The results were published in March 2010, in a report called "What Not to Swear".[18] According to the Authority, the findings "measured how acceptable the public finds the use of swear words, blasphemies, and other expletives in broadcasting".
Types of swearing by purpose
According to Steven Pinker[19] there are five possible functions of swearing:
- Abusive swearing
- Cathartic swearing
- Dysphemistic swearing
- Emphatic swearing
- Idiomatic swearing
By country
| The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United Kingdom and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (January 2012) |
Swearing in the United Kingdom
In public
Swearing, in and of itself, is not a criminal offence in the United Kingdom although in context may constitute a component of a crime. In England and Wales, swearing in public where it is seen to cause harassment, alarm or distress may constitute an offence under section 5(1) and (6) of the Public Order Act 1986.[20] In Scotland, a similar common law offence of breach of the peace covers issues causing public alarm and distress.
In the workplace
In the United Kingdom, swearing in the workplace can be an act of gross misconduct under certain circumstances. In particular, this is the case when swearing accompanies insubordination against a superior or humiliation of a subordinate employee. However, in other cases it may not be grounds for instant dismissal.[21] According to a UK site on work etiquette, the "fact that swearing is a part of everyday life means that we need to navigate a way through a day in the office without offending anyone, while still appreciating that people do swear. Of course, there are different types of swearing and, without spelling it out, you really ought to avoid the 'worst words' regardless of who you’re talking to".[22] With respect to swearing between colleagues, the site explains that "although it may sound strange, the appropriateness [of] swearing [...] is influenced largely by the industry you are in and the individuals you work with". The site continues to explain that, even in a workplace in which swearing is the norm, there is no need to participate in it.[22] The site stresses that swearing is, in general, more problematic in asymmetric situations, such as in the presence of senior management or clients, but it also mentions that a "holier than thou" attitude towards clients may be problematic.[22]
The Guardian reported that "36% of the 308 UK senior managers and directors having responded to a survey accepted swearing as part of workplace culture", but warned about specific inappropriate uses of swearing such as when it is discriminatory or part of bullying behaviour. The article ends with a quotation from Ben Wilmott (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development): "Employers can ensure professional language in the workplace by having a well drafted policy on bullying and harassment that emphasises how bad language has potential to amount to harassment or bullying."[23]
Broadcasting
In countries where it is illegal to broadcast profanity on radio or television, programs can be pre-recorded or a broadcast delay device can be used to screen for and delete profanity or other undesirable material before it is broadcast.
Minced oaths
Main article: minced oath
Minced oaths are euphemistic expressions made by altering or clipping profane words and expressions, to make them less objectionable. Although minced oaths are often acceptable in situations where profanity is not (including the radio), some people still consider them profanity. In 1941, a judge threatened a lawyer with contempt of court for using the word "darn".[24][25]
Notable instances in popular culture
- Ulysses[why?] by James Joyce[26]
- The Catcher in the Rye[why?] by J. D. Salinger[27][28]
- Pygmalion (play) by George Bernard Shaw (for the use of bloody)[29]
- Gone with the Wind, 1939 film based on the novel by Margaret Mitchell and – "Frankly, my dear, I don't give a damn", this was falsely asserted to be among the first uses of profanity in a major American film. In fact, films produced in America prior to 1935 occasionally used strong language and gestures. [30]
- Winnebago Man,[why?] documentary starring Jack Rebney[31]
- Seven Dirty Words - a comedy routine by George Carlin, from 1972, in which he explained the seven words that must never be used in a television broadcast.
See also
- Blasphemy
- Bleep censor
- English profanity (category)
- Ethnic slurs
- Fuck: Word Taboo and Protecting Our First Amendment Liberties
- Maledictology
- Minced oath
- Obscenity
- Profanity in science fiction
- Profanum
- R v Penguin Books Ltd.
- Seven dirty words
- Swear filter
- Verbal abuse
- By language
- List of English-language euphemisms for profanities
- Profanity by language (category)
References
- Notes
- ^ "Definition of profanity". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English - online. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
- ^ "Definition of Profanity", Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, retrieved on 2014-08-31.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary Online, "profane", retrieved 2012-02-14
- ^ Bakhtin 1941, "introduction", p.5-6
- ^ Meletinsky, Eleazar Moiseevich The Poetics of Myth (Translated by Guy Lanoue and Alexandre Sadetsky) 2000 Routledge ISBN 0-415-92898-2 p.110
- ^ François Rabelais, Gargantua book, chap. XVII; in French the words mère de (meaning "mother of") sound like merde, which means "shit".
- ^ Full text of Chapter 16
- ^ Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhaĭlovich (1984) Rabelais and His World, p. 190. Indiana University Press. At Google Books Retrieved 11 August 2013.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary
- ^ Jay, T. (2009). "The Utility and Ubiquity of Taboo Words". Perspectives on Psychological Science 4 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01115.x. Retrieved 2012-11-19. edit
- ^ Angus Reid. (2010). Canadians Swear More Often Than Americans and British. Retrieved 2012-11-19
- ^ a b Angier, Natalie (2005-09-25), Cursing is a normal function of human language, experts say, New York Times, retrieved 2012-11-19
- ^ Richard Stephens, John Atkins, and Andrew Kingston (2009). "Swearing as a Response to Pain". Neuroreport 20 (12): 1056–60.
- ^ a b Joelving, Frederik (2009-07-12), Why the #$%! Do We Swear? For Pain Relief, Scientific American, retrieved 2012-11-19
- ^ Ringman, JM, Kwon, E, Flores, DL, Rotko, C, Mendez, MF & Lu, P (2010). "The Use of Profanity During Letter Fluency Tasks in Frontotemporal Dementia and Alzheimer Disease". Cognitive & Behavioral Neurology 23 (3): 159–164.
- ^ "Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain" by Antonio Damasio
- ^ "Delete expletives?". Retrieved 2012-11-19.
- ^ What Not to Swear. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
- ^ The Stuff of Thought: Language As a Window Into Human Nature, Steven Pinker 2007
- ^ "Public Order Act 1986". Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 2012-11-19.
- ^ Swearing in the Workplace. Retrieved 2012-11-19.
- ^ a b c Work Etiquette – Swearing in the Workplace. Retrieved 2012-11-19
- ^ Matt Keating (2006-06-03). "Should swearing be tolerated in the workplace?". London: Guardian. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ Montagu, Ashely (2001). The Anatomy of Swearing. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 298. ISBN 0-8122-1764-0.
- ^ "Minced oath". The Phrase Finder.
- ^ Ellmann, Richard (1982). James Joyce. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 502–04. ISBN 0-19-503103-2.
- ^ "Art or trash? It makes for endless, unwinnable debate". The Topeka Capital-Journal. 1997-10-06. Retrieved 2007-12-20. "Another perennial target, J.D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, was challenged in Maine because of the "f" word."
- ^ Ben MacIntyre (2005-09-24). "The American banned list reveals a society with serious hang-ups". The Times (London). Retrieved 2007-12-20.
- ^ Pygmalion, Act III. Eliza's "Walk? Not bloody likely!"
- ^ "Raw Dialog Challenges all the Censors". p. 92. Life Magazine: 92. 10 June 1966.
- ^ ""Winnebago Man" a Profanity-Laced Delight". NBC News Popcorn Biz (New York). 2010-05-20. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
- Bibliography
- Bakhtin, Mikhail; Iswolski, Hélène (translator) (1993) [1941]. Rabelais and His World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
- Bulcke, Camille (2001) [1968]. An English-Hindi Dictionary (3rd ed.). Ramnagar, New Delhi: Chand. ISBN 81-219-0559-1.
- Almond, Ian (2003). "Derrida and the Secret of the Non-Secret: On Respiritualising the Profane". Literature and Theology 17 (4): 457–471. doi:10.1093/litthe/17.4.457. ISSN 0269-1205.
- Further reading
- Jim O'Connor. Cuss Control. 2000.
- Edward Sagarin. The Anatomy of Dirty Words. 1962.
- Bill Bryson. The Mother Tongue. 1990.
- Richard A Spears. Forbidden American English. 1990.
- Sterling Johnson. Watch Your F*cking Language. 2004.
- Geoffrey Hughes. Swearing. 2004.
- Ruth Wajnryb. Expletive Deleted: A Good Look at Bad Language. 2005.
- Jesse Sheidlower. The F-Word. 2009. (3rd ed.)
- Croom, Adam M. "Slurs." Language Sciences, Volume 33, Number 3, May 2011, pp. 343-358. Published by Elsevier.
- Stollznow, Karen. "Swearing is bad?". Archived from the original on 2007-05-21.
- Tony McEnery, Swearing in English: bad language, purity and power from 1586 to the present, Routledge, 2006 ISBN 0-415-25837-5.
External links
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Profanity. |
| Wikiquote has quotations related to: Profanity |
| Look up profanity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Most vulgar words in The Online Slang Dictionary (as voted by visitors)
- Steven Pinker, "The Stuff of Thought: Language as a window into human nature"
- Francis Grose (1811). Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue at Project Gutenberg
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English Journal
- Effects of induced anger in patients with antisocial personality disorder.
- Lobbestael J, Arntz A, Cima M, Chakhssi F.Author information Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands. jill.lobbestael@dmkep.unimaas.nlAbstractBACKGROUND: Anger is the main deregulated emotion in patients with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). The aim of this study was to examine emotional, cognitive and physiological correlates of anger and compare these between ASPD patients with varying degree of psychopathy (PP) and control groups.
- Psychological medicine.Psychol Med.2009 Apr;39(4):557-68. doi: 10.1017/S0033291708005102. Epub 2009 Jan 27.
- BACKGROUND: Anger is the main deregulated emotion in patients with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). The aim of this study was to examine emotional, cognitive and physiological correlates of anger and compare these between ASPD patients with varying degree of psychopathy (PP) and control group
- PMID 19171078
Related Links
- “swearword” は通常「汚い言葉」と訳されているようです。私は「使ってはならない、貴方の品性を疑われるだけだから」と厳しく言われました。意味を強める時、
- swearword / ˈswɛərˌwɜrd / Show Spelled [swair-wurd] Show IPA noun a word used in swearing or cursing; a profane or obscene word. Origin: 1880–85, Americanism; swear + word Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random ...
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