supererogatory

　

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1. 義務以上の;必要以上の

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/02/08 17:03:19」(JST)

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Supererogation (Late Lat. supererogatio, payment beyond what is due or asked, from super, beyond, erogare, to pay out, expend, ex, out, rogare, to ask) is the performance of more than is asked for, the action of doing more than duty requires. Supererogatory, in ethics, indicates an act that is good but not morally required to be done. It refers to an act that is more than necessary, when another course of action, involving less, would still be an acceptable action. It differs from a duty, which is an act that would be wrong not to do, and from acts that are morally neutral. Supererogation may be considered as performing above and beyond a normative course of duty to further benefits and functionality.

In Catholicism

In the theology of the Roman Catholic Church, "works of supererogation" (also called "acts of supererogation") are those performed beyond what God requires. For example, in 1 Corinthians 7, Saint Paul says that while everyone is free to marry, it is better to refrain from marriage and remain celibate to better serve God. The Roman Catholic Church holds that the counsels of perfection are supererogatory acts, which specific Christians may engage in above their moral duties. Similarly, it teaches that to determine how to act, one must engage in reasonable efforts to be sure of what the right actions are; after the reasonable action, the person is in a state of invincible ignorance and guiltless of wrongdoing, but to undertake more than reasonable actions to overcome ignorance is supererogatory, and praiseworthy.

According to the classic teaching on indulgences, the works of supererogation performed by all the saints form a treasure with God that the Church can apply to exempt repentant sinners from the works of penitence that would otherwise be required of them to achieve full reconciliation with the Church. Opposition and the abuse of this teaching was the main point of Martin Luther when he began opposing the Church, and thus a seed of the Protestant Reformation as a whole. The Anglican Church also denied the doctrine of supererogation in the fourteenth of the Thirty-Nine Articles, which state that works of supererogation "cannot be taught without arrogancy and impiety: for by them men do declare, that they not only render unto God as much as they are bound to, but that they do more for his sake, than of bounden duty is required: whereas Christ saith plainly, When ye have done all that are commanded to you, say, We are unprofitable servants." Many later Protestant movements followed suit, e.g. in the Methodist Articles of Religion.

In Islam

A Muslim must engage in a minimum number of daily prayers. To do nafl prayers (prayers in addition to the minimum number) is supererogatory. There are also several other supererogatory acts in Islam, like extra fasting or the giving of sadaqa (a voluntary Islamic charity, which may range from financial assistance to a simple smile to someone), which is not obligatory.

Discussion

Whether an act is supererogatory, or obligatory, can be debated. In many schools of thought, donating money to charity is supererogatory. In others, where some level of charitable donation is regarded as a duty — such as tithe in Judaism and many Christian sects — exceeding it is a supererogatory act.

In criminal law, it may be observed that state prohibitions on killing, stealing, and so on derive from the state's duty to protect one's own citizens. However, a nation state has no duty to protect the citizens of an adjacent nation from crime. To send a peacekeeping force into another country would be (in the view of the nation doing it) supererogatory.

Some schools of ethics do not include supererogatory acts. In utilitarianism, an act can only be better because it would bring more good to a greater number, and in that case, becomes a duty, not a supererogatory act.

External links

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

English Journal

• Is procreative beneficence obligatory?

• Saunders B.AbstractJulian Savulescu defends the principle of procreative beneficence, according to which parents have a prima facie moral obligation to choose the child with the best expected life. In this paper, I argue that Savulescu fails to show that procreative beneficence is genuinely obligatory, because of his equivocation between moral reason and moral obligation. Savulescu assumes that morality requires us to do what we have most (moral) reason to do, but many deny this, for instance because they believe we have reasons (but no obligation) to perform supererogatory actions. Even if parents have moral reasons to choose the child with the best expected life, they may not be under any obligation to do so.
• Journal of medical ethics.J Med Ethics.2014 Feb 12. doi: 10.1136/medethics-2013-101711. [Epub ahead of print]
• Julian Savulescu defends the principle of procreative beneficence, according to which parents have a prima facie moral obligation to choose the child with the best expected life. In this paper, I argue that Savulescu fails to show that procreative beneficence is genuinely obligatory, because of his
• PMID 24523029

• Challenging the Moral Status of Blood Donation.

• Snelling PC.Author information Adult Nursing, University of the West of England, Alexandra Warehouse, West Quay, Gloucester Docks, Gloucester, GL1 2LG, UK, Paul.Snelling@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk.AbstractThe World Health Organisation encourages that blood donation becomes voluntary and unremunerated, a system already operated in the UK. Drawing on public documents and videos, this paper argues that blood donation is regarded and presented as altruistic and supererogatory. In advertisements, donation is presented as something undertaken for the benefit of others, a matter attracting considerable gratitude from recipients and the collecting organisation. It is argued that regarding blood donation as an act of supererogation is wrongheaded, and an alternative account of blood donation as moral obligation is presented. Two arguments are offered in support of this position. First, the principle of beneficence, understood in a broad consequentialist framework obliges donation where the benefit to the recipient is large and the cost to the donor relatively small. This argument can be applied, with differing levels of normativity, to various acts of donation. Second, the wrongness of free riding requires individuals to contribute to collective systems from which they benefit. Alone and in combination these arguments present moral reasons for donation, recognised in communication strategies elsewhere. Research is required to evaluate the potential effects on donation of a campaign which presents blood donation as moral obligation, but of wider importance is the recognition that other-regarding considerations in relation to our own as well as others' health result in a range not only of choices but also of obligations.
• Health care analysis : HCA : journal of health philosophy and policy.Health Care Anal.2012 Sep 15. [Epub ahead of print]
• The World Health Organisation encourages that blood donation becomes voluntary and unremunerated, a system already operated in the UK. Drawing on public documents and videos, this paper argues that blood donation is regarded and presented as altruistic and supererogatory. In advertisements, donation
• PMID 22983763

• Supererogation in clinical research.

• Barnbaum DR.Author information Department of Philosophy, Kent State University, P.O. Box 5190, Kent, OH, 44242-0001, USA. dbarnbau@kent.eduAbstract'Supererogation' is the notion of going beyond the call of duty. The concept of supererogation has received scrutiny in ethical theory, as well as clinical bioethics. Yet, there has been little attention paid to supererogation in research ethics. Supererogation is examined in this paper from three perspectives: (1) a summary of two analyses of 'supererogation' in moral theory, as well as an examination as to whether acts of supererogation exist; (2) a discussion of supererogation in clinical practice, including arguments that both physicians and patients can practice acts of supererogation; (3) a discussion as to why researchers, qua researchers, are not routinely recognized to perform acts of supererogation, while at the same time the very nature of research subject participation involves supererogation. The article concludes by considering three examples of supererogation on the part of researchers, with a plea that researchers' supererogatory actions be recognized as such.
• Medicine, health care, and philosophy.Med Health Care Philos.2008 Sep;11(3):343-9. doi: 10.1007/s11019-008-9124-4. Epub 2008 Feb 22.
• 'Supererogation' is the notion of going beyond the call of duty. The concept of supererogation has received scrutiny in ethical theory, as well as clinical bioethics. Yet, there has been little attention paid to supererogation in research ethics. Supererogation is examined in this paper from three p
• PMID 18293099

Japanese Journal

• 実在論論争の舞台を考える : van Fraassenの主意主義的認識論の検討を中心に

• 科学哲学科学史研究 4, 65-83, 2010-02-28
• NAID 120002063739

• まさに規範的な倫理学としてのスポーツ倫理学の試み

• 旭川医科大学紀要（一般教育） (24), 13-22, 2008-03
• NAID 120001025857

• 超義務(Supererogation)と医の職業倫理(Professional Medical Ethics)

• 先端倫理研究 : 熊本大学倫理学研究室紀要 2, 13-24, 2007-03
• NAID 110006274907

Related Links

• Supererogatory | Definition of supererogatory by Merriam-Webster

Definition of SUPEREROGATORY 1: observed or performed to an extent not enjoined or required 2: superfluous Examples of SUPEREROGATORY <now that the dress code has been e-mailed to everyone and posted on our intranet ...

• Supererogatory | Define Supererogatory at Dictionary.com

Supererogatory definition, going beyond the requirements of duty. See more. Thesaurus Translate Puzzles & Games Word of the Day Blog Slideshows Apps by Dictionary My Account Log Out Log In follow Dictionary.com More...

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