WordNet

perform a stunt or stunts
a creature (especially a whale) that has been prevented from attaining full growth
a difficult or unusual or dangerous feat; usually done to gain attention
check the growth or development of; "You will stunt your growth by building all these muscles"
a stunt performed by an acrobat (同)acrobatic feat
overcome as with astonishment or disbelief; "The news stunned her" (同)bedaze, daze
make senseless or dizzy by or as if by a blow; "stun fish" (同)stupefy

PrepTutorEJDIC

…‘の'発育(成長)を妨げる;〈成長・発展など〉‘を'妨げる
妙技,離れわざ;曲乗り飛行 / 人気取り / 離れわざをする
スタントマン(映画などで危険な場面の代役をする人;女性はstunt woman)
(殴打などで)…‘を'気絶させる / (驚き・時に喜びなどで)〈人〉‘の'肝をつぶさせる,‘を'ぼう然とさせる(amaze)

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/12/31 05:33:15」(JST)

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Pyrotechnics stunt exhibition by "Giant Auto Rodéo", Ciney, Belgium.

A stunt is an unusual and difficult physical feat or an act requiring a special skill, performed for artistic purposes usually on television, theatre, or cinema. Stunts are a feature of many action films. Before computer generated imagery special effects, these effects were limited to the use of models, false perspective and other in-camera effects, unless the creator could find someone willing to jump from car to car or hang from the edge of a skyscraper: the stunt performer or stunt double.

1 Types of stunt effects
- 1.1 Practical effects
- 1.2 Mechanical effects
- 1.3 Vehicular stunts
- 1.4 Computer-generated effects
2 Stunts that have gone wrong
3 Stunt-based television shows
4 Recognition of stunt performers
5 Equality in stunts
6 The future of stuntwork
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Further reading
10 External links

Types of stunt effects

Practical effects

One of the most-frequently used practical stunts is stage combat. Although contact is normally avoided, many elements of stage combat, such as sword fighting, martial arts, and acrobatics required contact between performers in order to facilitate the creation of a particular effect, such as noise or physical interaction. Stunt performances are highly choreographed and may be rigorously rehearsed for hours, days and sometimes weeks before a performance. Seasoned professionals will commonly treat a performance as if they have never done it before,^{[citation needed]} since the risks in stunt work are high, every move and position must be correct to reduce risk of injury from accidents. Examples of practical effects include tripping and falling down, high jumps, extreme sporting moves, acrobatics and high diving, spins, gainer falls, "suicide backflips," and other martial arts stunts.^{[citation needed]}

Freestyle & Stunt Show 2007 - Landrévarzec

Mechanical effects

A physical stunt is usually performed with help of mechanics. For example, if the plot requires the hero to jump to a high place, the film crew could put the actor in a special harness, and use aircraft high tension wire to pull him up. Piano wire is sometimes used to fly objects, but an actor is never suspended from it as it is brittle and can break under shock impacts. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) is a kung-fu film that was heavily reliant on wire stunts.

Vehicular stunts

Performers of vehicular stunts require extensive training and may employ specially adapted vehicles. Stunts can be as simple as a handbrake turn, also known as the bootleg turn, or as advanced as car chases, jumps and crashes involving dozens of vehicles. Rémy Julienne is a well known pioneering automotive stunt performer and coordinator. Another well known vehicular stunt specialist is Englishman Ian Walton, who was the helicopter stunt pilot and stunt designer for many 1980s films, notably the Bond film Never Say Never Again. Streetbike stunts, also known as "stunting" gained widespread popularity in the early 2000s and continues to grow. It is based on wheelies but now goes much further than that.

Computer-generated effects

In the late 20th century stunt men were placed in dangerous situations less and less as filmmakers turned to relatively inexpensive (and much safer) computer graphics effects using harnesses, fans, blue- or green screens, and a huge array of other devices and digital effects. The Matrix (1999) is an example for a film that extensively "enhanced" real stunts through CGI post production. The Lord of the Rings film series and the Star Wars prequel films often display stunts that are entirely computer generated. Examples of compoter-generated effects include face replacement and the gig known as "wire removal".

Stunts that have gone wrong

Stunt-based television shows

Reality competition television shows such as Fear Factor and Going Straight have required contestants to complete stunts to win prize money.

Recognition of stunt performers

Films such as Hooper and The Stunt Man and the 1980s television show The Fall Guy sought to raise the profile of the stunt performer and debunk the myth that film stars perform all their own stunts. Noted stunt coordinators Hal Needham, Craig R. Baxley, and Vic Armstrong went on to direct the action films The Cannonball Run, Action Jackson, and Joshua Tree. Vic Armstrong became the first stuntman to win both an Academy Award (for developing a descender rig as a safe alternative to airbags) and a BAFTA award (for lifetime achievement in film). But the status of stuntmen in Hollywood is still low;^{[according to whom?]} despite the fact that few films of any genre or type could be made without them, stunt performers are still seen as working mainly in action films. Repeated campaigns for a "Best Stunts" Academy Award have been rejected.

In 2001, the first "World Stunt Awards" were presented in Los Angeles by actor Alec Baldwin. The event had A-list stars presenting the statues to Hollywood's unsung heroes. Arnold Schwarzenegger was presented with the first "Lifetime Achievement" award. He presented the awards in 2001. The awards show hands out eight awards: Best Fight, Best Fire Stunt, Best High Work, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Man, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Woman, Best Speciality Stunt, Best Work with a Vehicle and Best Stunt Coordinator and/or 2nd Unit Director.

Equality in stunts

In past Hollywood films it was common for men to double for women and White American stunt performers to double for African-American performers. Veteran stunt man Dave Sharpe, a man of shorter than average height, often doubled for women in film serials of the 1930s and '40s. It is now against union rules for stunt performers to double an actor of a different gender or race unless the stunt is so dangerous that there are no other volunteers, for example when B.J. Worth doubled for the black Jamaican actress Grace Jones who parachuted off the Eiffel Tower in A View to a Kill. The rise of action heroines like Angelina Jolie and African-American stars like Will Smith has offered wider opportunities for stunt performers from diverse backgrounds.

The future of stuntwork

A backlash against dangerous stunts following the fatal 42 foot backward fall of Sonya Davis off a building on the set of Vampire in Brooklyn,^[1]^[2] coinciding with developments in computer-generated imagery (CGI) that make such stunts unnecessary threatens to reduce stunt performers to the status of body doubles. And yet a backlash against films that resemble video games could lead to a resurrection in pure stuntwork. Films such as The Matrix and Mission: Impossible II have shown how CGI and stunts can be integrated for maximum effect. But—if for no other reason than safety—it is doubtful that the records established by Hooper and Sharky's Machine will be broken anytime soon. A new subgenre of eastern martial arts films exists which emphasize the actors performing their own stunts, deliberately using wide angles and unbroken shots to show each stunt in its entirety. Examples of actors doing their own stunts include Jackie Chan and Tony Jaa.

Notes

^ Lisa Respers, 1995, "Stuntwoman's Family Sues Over Fatal 42-Foot Fall on Set: Courts: Mother seeks $10 million, saying studio did not provide proper safety equipment. Defendants have made no comment," The Los Angeles Times (online), February 12, 1995, see [1], accessed 16 April 2015.
^ Respers states in the L.A. TImes article that the "air bag that was to cushion Davis' fall instead reacted like a huge balloon, causing the young woman to bounce, slam into the building and hit the ground.

External links

Taurus World Stunt Awards
Photos from competition and international gathering stuntriders in Minsk (Belarus)

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The GEF1 Proton-Chloride Exchanger Affects Tombusvirus Replication via Regulation of Copper Metabolism in Yeast.

Sasvari Z, Kovalev N, Nagy PD.SourceDepartment of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.
Journal of virology.J Virol.2013 Feb;87(3):1800-10. doi: 10.1128/JVI.02003-12. Epub 2012 Nov 28.
Replication of plus-strand RNA viruses [(+)RNA viruses] is performed by viral replicases, whose function is affected by many cellular factors in infected cells. In this paper, we demonstrate a surprising role for Gef1p proton-chloride exchanger in replication of Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV) model
PMID 23192874

A Survey of Resistance to Tomato bushy stunt virus in the Genus Nicotiana Reveals That the Hypersensitive Response Is Triggered by One of Three Different Viral Proteins.

Angel CA, Schoelz JE.AbstractIn this study, we screened 22 Nicotiana spp. for resistance to the tombusviruses Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV), Cucumber necrosis virus, and Cymbidium ringspot virus. Eighteen species were resistant, and resistance was manifested in at least two different categories. In all, 13 species responded with a hypersensitive response (HR)-type resistance, whereas another five were resistant but either had no visible response or responded with chlorotic lesions rather than necrotic lesions. Three different TBSV proteins were found to trigger HR in Nicotiana spp. in an agroinfiltration assay. The most common avirulence (avr) determinant was the TBSV coat protein P41, a protein that had not been previously recognized as an avr determinant. A mutational analysis confirmed that the coat protein rather than the viral RNA sequence was responsible for triggering HR, and it triggered HR in six species in the Alatae section. The TBSV P22 movement protein triggered HR in two species in section Undulatae (Nicotiana glutinosa and N. edwardsonii) and one species in section Alatae (N. forgetiana). The TBSV P19 RNA silencing suppressor protein triggered HR in sections Sylvestres (N. sylvestris), Nicotiana (N. tabacum), and Alatae (N. bonariensis). In general, Nicotiana spp. were capable of recognizing only one tombusvirus avirulence determinant, with the exceptions of N. bonariensis and N. forgetiana, which were each able to recognize P41, as well as P19 and P22, respectively. Agroinfiltration failed to detect the TBSV avr determinants responsible for triggering HR in N. arentsii, N. undulata, and N. rustica. This study illustrates the breadth and variety of resistance responses to tombusviruses that exists in the Nicotiana genus.
Molecular plant-microbe interactions : MPMI.Mol Plant Microbe Interact.2013 Feb;26(2):240-8. doi: 10.1094/MPMI-06-12-0157-R.
In this study, we screened 22 Nicotiana spp. for resistance to the tombusviruses Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV), Cucumber necrosis virus, and Cymbidium ringspot virus. Eighteen species were resistant, and resistance was manifested in at least two different categories. In all, 13 species responded w
PMID 23075040

An Analysis of the Genomic Variability of the Phytopathogenic Mollicute Spiroplasma kunkelii.

Carpane P, Melcher U, Wayadande A, de la Paz Gimenez Pecci M, Laguna G, Dolezal W, Fletcher J.AbstractABSTRACT Corn stunt disease has become a factor limiting maize production in some areas of the Americas in recent years. Although resistant maize genotypes have been developed in the past, this resistance has been unstable over time or in some geographical locations. To better understand disease components that could affect the stability of host resistance, we assessed the genome variability of the etiologic agent, Spiroplasma kunkelii. Isolates were obtained from a number of areas, and characterized molecularly by amplification of several regions of the spiroplasma chromosome and sequencing of specific gene fragments. The degree of polymorphism between isolates of different geographic origins was low, and the level of genomic variability was similar within isolates of different countries. Polymorphism among isolates was found in viral insertions and in the sequence of Skarp, a gene that encodes a membrane protein implicated in attachment to insect cells. The results suggest that the genome composition of this species is highly conserved among isolates. Hence, it is unlikely that the instability of maize resistance is due to generation of new pathotypes of S. kunkelii. Instead, other components of this complex pathosystem could account for the breakdown of resistance.
Phytopathology.Phytopathology.2013 Feb;103(2):129-34. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO-07-12-0158-R.
ABSTRACT Corn stunt disease has become a factor limiting maize production in some areas of the Americas in recent years. Although resistant maize genotypes have been developed in the past, this resistance has been unstable over time or in some geographical locations. To better understand disease c
PMID 23013451

Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism for Molecular Variability Studies of Six Viroid Species.

Elleuch A, Hamdi I, Bessaies N, Fakhfakh H.SourceLaboratory of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Sciences of Sfax, University of Sfax.
Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.Biosci Biotechnol Biochem.2013 Jan 7. [Epub ahead of print]
Molecular diversity within six viroid species and different molecular variants, in each species infecting fruit trees was first estimated by the single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) technique and then by direct sequencing analysis. The different variants studied are to three Australian gra
PMID 23291763