骨格

関: scaffold、skeletal

WordNet

something reduced to its minimal form; "the battalion was a mere skeleton of its former self"; "the bare skeleton of a novel"
the internal supporting structure that gives an artifact its shape; "the building has a steel skeleton" (同)skeletal frame, frame, underframe
a scandal that is kept secret; "there must be a skeleton somewhere in that familys closet" (同)skeleton in the closet, skeleton in the cupboard
provide with a scaffold for support; "scaffold the building before painting it"
a platform from which criminals are executed (hanged or beheaded)
a temporary arrangement erected around a building for convenience of workers
of or relating to or forming or attached to a skeleton; "the skeletal system"; "skeletal bones"; "skeletal muscles"
pantropical epiphytic or terrestrial whisk fern with usually dull yellow branches and minute leaves; America; Japan; Australia (同)Psilotum nudum
small amphipod crustacean having a grotesque form suggestive of the praying mantis; found chiefly on seaweed
the internal skeleton; bony and cartilaginous structure (especially of vertebrates)
a passkey with much of the bit filed away so that it can open different locks

PrepTutorEJDIC

(人間・動物の)『骨格』,がい骨 / (建物・船などの)『骨組み』 / (文芸作品などの)骨子,粗筋,概要 / 必要最小限のもの / 《話》(骨と皮ばかりに)やせこけた人(動物)
(建築現場などの)足場 / 処刑台,断頭台 / (組み立て式の)野外舞台;組み立てさじき
骨格に;がい骨の;がい骨のような

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/03/02 04:28:22」(JST)

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For other uses, see Skeleton (disambiguation).

The skeletons of a human and a horse placed in a display in the Australian Museum, Sydney.

Heiyantuduwa Raja (elephant) Skeleton at

National Museum of Colombo Sri Lanka

The skeleton (From Greek σκελετός, skeletos = "dried body", "mummy") is the body part that forms the supporting structure of an organism. There are two different skeletal types: the exoskeleton, which is the stable outer shell of an organism, and the endoskeleton, which forms the support structure inside the body.

In a figurative sense, skeleton can refer to technology that supports a structure such as a building.

1 Types of skeletons
- 1.1 Exoskeleton
- 1.2 Endoskeleton
  - 1.2.1 Sponges
  - 1.2.2 Echinoderms
  - 1.2.3 Chordates
    - 1.2.3.1 Fish
    - 1.2.3.2 Birds
    - 1.2.3.3 Marine mammals
- 1.3 Hydrostatic skeleton
- 1.4 Cytoskeleton
2 Human
3 Bones and cartilage
- 3.1 Bone
- 3.2 Cartilage
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

Types of skeletons

Exoskeleton

Main article: Exoskeleton

Exoskeleton of an ant

Exoskeletons are external, and are found in many invertebrates; they enclose and protect the soft tissues and organs of the body. Some kinds of exoskeletons undergo periodic moulting as the animal grows, as is the case in many arthropods including insects and crustaceans. Exoskeletons are made of different materials including chitin (in arthropods), calcium compounds (in corals and mollusks) and silicate (for diatoms and radiolarians.)

The exoskeleton of insects is not only a protection but also serves as a surface for muscle attachment, as a watertight protection against drying and as a sense organ to interact with their environments. The shell of mollusks also performs all of the same functions, except that in most cases it does not contain sense organs.

An external skeleton can be quite heavy in relation to the overall mass of an animal, so on land, organisms that have an exoskeleton are mostly relatively small. Somewhat larger aquatic animals can support an exoskeleton because weight is less of a consideration underwater. The southern giant clam, a species of extremely large saltwater clam in the Pacific Ocean, has a shell that is massive in both size and weight. Syrinx aruanus is a species of sea snail with a very large shell.

Endoskeleton

Main article: Endoskeleton

Endoskeleton of an elephant.

A beaver skeleton on display at The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Endoskeletons is the internal support structure of an animal, composed of mineralized tissue and are typical of many vertebrates. They vary in complexity such as functioning purely for support (as in the case of sponges), but often serves as an attachment site for muscle and a mechanism for transmitting muscular forces. A true endoskeleton is derived from mesodermal tissue. Such a skeleton is present in echinoderms and chordates.

Sponges

The skeleton of sponges consists of microscopic calcareous or silicious spicules. The demosponges include 90% of all species of sponges. Their "skeletons" are made of spicules consisting of fibers of the protein spongin, the mineral silica, or both. Where spicules of silica are present, they have a different shape from those in the otherwise similar glass sponges.^[1]

Echinoderms

The skeleton of the echinoderms, which include, among other things, the starfish, is composed of calcite and a small amount of magnesium oxide. It lies below the epidermis in the mesoderm and is within cell clusters of frame-forming cells. This structure formed is porous and therefore firm and at the same time light. It coalesces into small calcareous ossicles (bony plates), which can grow in all directions and thus can replace the loss of a body part. Connected by joints, the individual skeletal parts can be moved by the muscles.

Chordates

In humans and generally in most vertebrates, the main skeletal component is referred to as bone. Another important component is cartilage. In mammals they are found mainly in the joint areas. In other animals, such as the cartilaginous fishes, which include the sharks, the skeleton is composed entirely of cartilage.

Bones in addition to supporting the body also serve, at the cellular level, as calcium and phosphate storage.

Fish

The skeleton of the fish is either made of cartilage (cartilage fish) or bones (bony fishes). The main features of the fish, the fins, are bony fin rays and, except the caudal fin, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported only by the muscles. The ribs attach to the spine.

Birds

The bird skeleton is highly adapted for flight. It is extremely lightweight, yet still strong enough to withstand the stresses of taking off, flying, and landing. One key adaptation is the fusing of bones into single ossifications, such as the pygostyle. Because of this, birds usually have a smaller number of bones than other terrestrial vertebrates. Birds also lack teeth or even a true jaw, instead having evolved a beak, which is far more lightweight. The beaks of many baby birds have a projection called an egg tooth, which facilitates their exit from the amniotic egg.

Marine mammals

To facilitate movement of marine mammals in the water, the hind legs were either lost altogether, as in the whales and manatees, or united in a single tail fin e.g., pinniped seals.

Hydrostatic skeleton

The most simple form of skeleton is the hydrostatic skeleton found in many cold-blooded organisms and soft-bodied animals. The pressure of the fluid and action of the surrounding muscles are used to change an organism's shape and produce movement. This fluid filled cavity is known as the coelom. Invertebrates such as starfish, sea urchins, jellyfish and earthworms have this form of a skeleton. The hydrostatic skeleton has some similarities to muscular hydrostats.

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton (gr. kytos = cell) is used to stabilize and preserve the form of the cells. It is a dynamic structure that maintains cell shape, protects the cell, enables cellular motion (using structures such as flagella, cilia and lamellipodia), and plays important roles in both intracellular transport (the movement of vesicles and organelles, for example) and cellular division.

Human

Main article: Human skeleton

Study of Skeletons, c. 1510, by Leonardo da Vinci

The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as the brain, lungs and heart. Although the teeth do not consist of tissue commonly found in other bones, the teeth are considered bones and are a member of the skeletal system. The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the upper leg, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 14% of the total body weight,^[2] and half of this weight is water.

Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium. Not all bones are interconnected directly: There are three bones in each middle ear called the ossicles that articulate only with each other. The hyoid bone, which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the tongue, does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments.

There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, although this number depends on whether the pelvic bones (the os innominatum on each side) are counted as one or three bones on each side (ilium, ischium, and pubis), whether the coccyx or tail bone is counted as one or four separate bones, and does not count the variable wormian bones between skull sutures. Similarly, the sacrum is usually counted as a single bone, rather than five fused vertebrae. There is also a variable number of small sesamoid bones, commonly found in tendons. The patella or kneecap on each side is an example of a larger sesamoid bone. The patellae are counted in the total, as they are constant. The number of bones varies between individuals and with age - newborn babies have over 270 bones^[3]^[4]^[5] some of which fuse together. These bones are organized into a longitudinal axis, the axial skeleton, to which the appendicular skeleton is attached.^[6]

The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed. In many animals, the skeleton bones contain marrow, which produces blood cells. ^[7]

Much of the human skeleton maintains the ancient segmental pattern present in all vertebrates (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians) with basic units being repeated. This segmental pattern is particularly evident in the vertebral column and in the ribcage.

Bones and cartilage

Bone

Main article: Bone

Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Because bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure they are lightweight, yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other functions. One of the types of tissue that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue, that gives it rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body^[8] and 270 in an infant.^[9] ^[10]

Cartilage

Main article: Cartilage

A commonly mistaken thought is that cartilage is only present in a human's nose area. However, when humans are first developing in utero, they have a cartilage precursor to their skeletal structure. Much of this substance is then replaced by bone during the second and third trimester, after the flesh such as muscle has formed around it; forming the skeleton. Cartilage is a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle.

Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes that produce a large amount of extracellular matrix composed of Type II collagen (except Fibrocartilage which also contains type I collagen) fibers, abundant ground substance rich in proteoglycan, and elastin fibers. Cartilage is classified in three types, elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage, which differ in the relative amounts of these three main components.

Unlike other connective tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels. The chondrocytes are supplied by diffusion, helped by the pumping action generated by compression of the articular cartilage or flexion of the elastic cartilage. Thus, compared to other connective tissues, cartilage grows and repairs more slowly. ^[10]

References

^ Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 105–106. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
^ William W. Reynolds and William J. Karlotski (1977). "The Allometric Relationship of Skeleton Weight to Body Weight in Teleost Fishes: A Preliminary Comparison with Birds and Mammals". Copeia: 160–163.
^ Miller, Larry (2007-12-09). "We’re Born With 270 Bones. As Adults We Have 206". Ground Report. http://www.groundreport.com/Health_and_Science/We-re-Born-With-270-Bones-As-Adults-We-Have-206.
^ "How many bones does the human body contain?". Ask.yahoo.com. 2001-08-08. http://ask.yahoo.com/20010808.html. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
^ http://education.sdsc.edu/download/enrich/exploring_human.pdf
^ Tözeren, Aydın (2000). Human Body Dynamics: Classical Mechanics and Human Movement. Springer. pp. 6–10. ISBN 0-387-98801-7.
^ "Human bones in the body?". http://www.human-body.org/skeletal.html.
^ Steele, D. Gentry; Claud A. Bramblett (1988). The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-89096-300-2.
^ Schmiedeler, Edgar; Mary Rosa McDonough (1934). Parent and Child: An Introductory Study of Parent Education. D. Appleton-Century. p. 31.
^ ^a ^b "Bones and cartilage". http://www.human-body.org/skeletal/bones.html.

External links

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English Journal

Baeckeins F-I, four novel C-methylated biflavonoids from the roots of Baeckea frutescens and their anti-inflammatory activities.

Jia BX1, Zeng XL2, Ren FX3, Jia L2, Chen XQ4, Yang J4, Liu HM5, Wang Q6.Author information 1Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Zhengzhou University, No. 100 of Science Road, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24 Tongjia Lane, Nanjing 210009, PR China. Electronic address: jiabeixi_2003_123@163.com.2Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Zhengzhou University, No. 100 of Science Road, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China.3Henan Zhongshuai Pharmaceutical Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China.4State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24 Tongjia Lane, Nanjing 210009, PR China.5Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Zhengzhou University, No. 100 of Science Road, Zhengzhou 450001, PR China. Electronic address: liuhm@zzu.edu.cn.6State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24 Tongjia Lane, Nanjing 210009, PR China. Electronic address: qwang49@163.com.AbstractBaeckea frutescens is an aromatic shrub used in South China as an ornamental and as a spice. Four unusual C-methylated biflavonoids named baeckeins F-I (1-4) were isolated from the roots of B. frutescens. The baeckeins F-I possessed a unique carbon skeleton, a flavonol conjugated with a coumaronochromone molecule via the unusual linkages of C-2-C-8(∗) and C-3-O-C-7(∗). Their structures were elucidated by analysis of the 1D ((1)H/(13)C) and 2D NMR (HSQC/HMBC/NOESY) and HR-ESI-MS spectroscopic data, and the absolute stereochemistry for chiral carbons of C-2 and C-3 was established by CD spectrometry combined with quantum chemical calculations. Baeckeins F-I (1-4) were also evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activities by detecting the NO production of LPS-induced RAW264.7 murine macrophage cell line; baeckein I (4) with the β-d-glucose unit and configuration of (2R,3R) exhibited the highest NO inhibitory activity (IC50=15.2μM), which was similar to that of the positive control indomethacin.
Food chemistry.Food Chem.2014 Jul 15;155:31-7. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.022. Epub 2014 Jan 24.
Baeckea frutescens is an aromatic shrub used in South China as an ornamental and as a spice. Four unusual C-methylated biflavonoids named baeckeins F-I (1-4) were isolated from the roots of B. frutescens. The baeckeins F-I possessed a unique carbon skeleton, a flavonol conjugated with a coumaronochr
PMID 24594150

Heading toward a modern imaging approach in juvenile idiopathic arthritis.

Lanni S1, Martini A, Malattia C.Author information 1Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Pediatria II, Largo G. Gaslini 5, 16147, Genova, Italy.AbstractMR imaging and musculoskeletal ultrasound are expanding their utility in the assessment of patients with chronic inflammatory arthritis. These imaging techniques, by providing additional and more sensitive information over clinical examination and conventional radiographs, are promising tools for the diagnosis, prognosis and assessment of treatment efficacy in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). Owing to the peculiarities of the growing skeleton, knowledge of imaging in healthy children is of high priority. A sound understanding of growth-related changes is of foremost value in establishing whether the apparent changes on joint surface reflect real damage or are actually part of normal development. This review explores current evidence and suggests a new workflow for imaging in JIA, in which conventional and modern imaging modalities can be integrated for optimal management.
Current rheumatology reports.Curr Rheumatol Rep.2014 May;16(5):416. doi: 10.1007/s11926-014-0416-9.
MR imaging and musculoskeletal ultrasound are expanding their utility in the assessment of patients with chronic inflammatory arthritis. These imaging techniques, by providing additional and more sensitive information over clinical examination and conventional radiographs, are promising tools for th
PMID 24609825

Modeling the morphodynamic galectin patterning network of the developing avian limb skeleton.

Glimm T1, Bhat R2, Newman SA3.Author information 1Department of Mathematics, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA 98229, USA. Electronic address: glimmt@wwu.edu.2Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. Electronic address: RBhat@lbl.gov.3Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, Basic Sciences Building, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA. Electronic address: newman@nymc.edu.AbstractWe present a mathematical model for the morphogenesis and patterning of the mesenchymal condensations that serve as primordia of the avian limb skeleton. The model is based on the experimentally established dynamics of a multiscale regulatory network consisting of two glycan-binding proteins expressed early in limb development: CG (chicken galectin)-1A, CG-8 and their counterreceptors that determine the formation, size, number and spacing of the "protocondensations" that give rise to the condensations and subsequently the cartilaginous elements that serve as the templates of the bones. The model, a system of partial differential and integro-differential equations containing a flux term to represent local adhesion gradients, is simulated in a "full" and a "reduced" form to confirm that the system has pattern-forming capabilities and to explore the nature of the patterning instability. The full model recapitulates qualitatively and quantitatively the experimental results of network perturbation and leads to new predictions, which are verified by further experimentation. The reduced model is used to demonstrate that the patterning process is inherently morphodynamic, with cell motility being intrinsic to it. Furthermore, subtle relationships between cell movement and the positive and negative interactions between the morphogens produce regular patterns without the requirement for activators and inhibitors with widely separated diffusion coefficients. The described mechanism thus represents an extension of the category of activator-inhibitor processes capable of generating biological patterns with repetitive elements beyond the morphostatic mechanisms of the Turing/Gierer-Meinhardt type.
Journal of theoretical biology.J Theor Biol.2014 Apr 7;346:86-108. doi: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.12.004. Epub 2013 Dec 16.
We present a mathematical model for the morphogenesis and patterning of the mesenchymal condensations that serve as primordia of the avian limb skeleton. The model is based on the experimentally established dynamics of a multiscale regulatory network consisting of two glycan-binding proteins express
PMID 24355216

Intraskeletal isotopic compositions (δ(13) C, δ(15) N) of bone collagen: Nonpathological and pathological variation.

Olsen KC1, White CD, Longstaffe FJ, von Heyking K, McGlynn G, Grupe G, Rühli FJ.Author information 1Department of Anthropology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.AbstractPaleodiet research traditionally interprets differences in collagen isotopic compositions (δ(13) C, δ(15) N) as indicators of dietary distinction even though physiological processes likely play some role in creating variation. This research investigates the degree to which bone collagen δ(13) C and δ(15) N values normally vary within the skeleton and examines the influence of several diseases common to ancient populations on these isotopic compositions. The samples derive from two medieval German cemeteries and one Swiss reference collection and include examples of metabolic disease (rickets/osteomalacia), degenerative joint disease (osteoarthritis), trauma (fracture), infection (osteomyelitis), and inflammation (periostitis). A separate subset of visibly nonpathological skeletal elements from the German collections established normal intraindividual variation. For each disease type, tests compared bone lesion samples to those near and distant to the lesions sites. Results show that normal (nonpathological) skeletons exhibit limited intraskeletal variation in carbon- and nitrogen-isotope ratios, suggesting that sampling of distinct elements is appropriate for paleodiet studies. In contrast, individuals with osteomyelitis, healed fractures, and osteoarthritis exhibit significant intraskeletal differences in isotope values, depending on whether one is comparing lesions to near or to distant sites. Skeletons with periostitis result in significant intraskeletal differences in nitrogen isotope values only, while those with rickets/osteomalacia do not exhibit significant intraskeletal differences. Based on these results, we suggest that paleodiet researchers avoid sampling collagen at or close to lesion sites because the isotope values may be reflecting both altered metabolic processes and differences in diet relative to others in the population. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:598-604, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
American journal of physical anthropology.Am J Phys Anthropol.2014 Apr;153(4):598-604. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22459. Epub 2013 Dec 30.
Paleodiet research traditionally interprets differences in collagen isotopic compositions (δ(13) C, δ(15) N) as indicators of dietary distinction even though physiological processes likely play some role in creating variation. This research investigates the degree to which bone collagen δ(13) C a
PMID 24374993

Japanese Journal

Automated segmentation of the skeleton in whole-body bone scans: Influence of difference in atlas

Kikuchi Akihiro,Onoguchi Masahisa,Horikoshi Hiroyuki,Sjöstrand Karl,Edenbrandt Lars
Nuclear Medicine Communications 33(9), 947-953, 2012-09
… AIM: Automated segmentation of the skeleton is the first step for quantitative analysis and computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) of whole-body bone scans. … CONCLUSION: Automated segmentation of the skeleton in a Japanese patient group was more successful when the CAD system based on a Japanese atlas was used than when the corresponding system based on a European atlas was used. …
NAID 120004754704