This article is about the various species of raspberry in the plant genus Rubus. For the widely cultivated Eurasian red raspberry, see Rubus idaeus. For the eastern North American black raspberry, see Rubus occidentalis. For other meanings, see Raspberry (disambiguation).
Fruit of four species of raspberry. Clockwise from top left: Boulder raspberry, Korean raspberry, Australian native raspberry, West Indian raspberry
The raspberry (//) is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus; the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with woody stems.
Contents
- 1 Major kinds of cultivated raspberries
- 2 Species
- 3 Uses
- 3.1 Fruit
- 3.1.1 Nutrients and phytochemicals
- 3.1.2 Commercial production
- 3.2 Leaves
- 4 Cultivation
- 4.1 Selected important cultivars
- 4.2 Diseases and pests
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
Major kinds of cultivated raspberries
Fruits of a golden or yellow raspberry cultivar
Raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.
Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus.[1] Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries all belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, with the European plants then classified as either R. idaeus subsp. idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus. Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking.
The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is also occasionally cultivated in the United States, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products, all with that species' distinctive, richer flavor.
Purple raspberries have been produced by horticultural hybridization of red and black raspberries, and have also been found in the wild in a few places (for example, in Vermont) where the American red and the black raspberries both grow naturally. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare.
Blue raspberry, is a local name used in Prince Edward Country, Ontario, Canada[2] for the cultivar 'Columbian', a hybrid (purple raspberry) of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis.[3] Rubus leucodermis is also known as "blue raspberry" in the context of blue raspberry flavor for candy, snack foods, syrups and soft drinks.[4]
Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, resulting from presence of recessive genes that impede production of anthocyanin pigments.[citation needed] Fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries; despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavour of their respective species (red or black). Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries. Yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens.
Red raspberries have also been crossed with various species in other subgenera of the genus Rubus, resulting in a number of hybrids, the first of which was the loganberry. Later notable hybrids include boysenberry (a multi-generation hybrid), and tayberry. Hybridization between the familiar cultivated red raspberries and a few Asiatic species of Rubus has also been achieved.
Species
Until recently, the most commonly cultivated raspberries have been red-fruited hybrids between
R. idaeus and
R. strigosus.
Purple-fruited raspberry hybrids (and black raspberries) are of interest to growers because of their potential for nutraceuticals.
[5]
Examples of raspberry species in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:
- Rubus crataegifolius (Asian raspberry)
- Rubus gunnianus (Tasmanian alpine raspberry)
- Rubus idaeus (European red raspberry)
- Rubus leucodermis (Whitebark or Western raspberry, Blue raspberry, Black raspberry)
- Rubus occidentalis (Black raspberry)
- Rubus parvifolius (Australian native raspberry)
- Rubus phoenicolasius (Wine raspberry or Wineberry)
- Rubus rosifolius (West Indian raspberry)
- Rubus strigosus (American red raspberry) (syn. R. idaeus var. strigosus)
- Rubus ellipticus (Yellow Himalayan Raspberry)
Several species of Rubus, also called raspberries, are classified in other subgenera, including:
- Rubus arcticus (Arctic raspberry, subgenus Cyclactis)
- Rubus deliciosus (Boulder raspberry, subgenus Anoplobatus)
- Rubus nivalis (Snow raspberry, subgenus Chamaebatus)
- Rubus odoratus (Flowering raspberry, subgenus Anoplobatus)
- Rubus sieboldii (Molucca raspberry, subgenus Malachobatus)
Uses
Fruit
Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing into individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or as dried fruit used in a variety of grocery products. Traditionally, raspberries were a midsummer crop, but with new technology, cultivars, and transportation, they can now be obtained year-round. Raspberries need ample sun and water for optimal development. Raspberries thrive in well-drained soil with a pH between 6 and 7 with ample organic matter to assist in retaining water.[6] While moisture is essential, wet and heavy soils or excess irrigation can bring on Phytophthora root rot, which is one of the most serious pest problems facing the red raspberry. As a cultivated plant in moist, temperate regions, it is easy to grow and has a tendency to spread unless pruned. Escaped raspberries frequently appear as garden weeds, spread by seeds found in bird droppings.
An individual raspberry weighs 3–5 g (0.11–0.18 oz),[7] and is made up of around 100 drupelets,[8] each of which consists of a juicy pulp and a single central seed. A raspberry bush can yield several hundred berries a year. Unlike blackberries and dewberries, a raspberry has a hollow core once it is removed from the receptacle.
Nutrients and phytochemicals
Raspberries, raw
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) |
| Energy |
220 kJ (53 kcal) |
|
|
Carbohydrates
|
11.94 g
|
| Sugars |
4.42 g |
| Dietary fiber |
6.5 g |
|
|
Fat
|
0.65 g
|
|
|
Protein
|
1.2 g
|
|
| Vitamins |
| Thiamine (B1) |
(3%)
0.032 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) |
(3%)
0.038 mg |
| Niacin (B3) |
(4%)
0.598 mg |
|
Pantothenic acid (B5)
|
(7%)
0.329 mg |
| Vitamin B6 |
(4%)
0.055 mg |
| Folate (B9) |
(5%)
21 μg |
| Choline |
(3%)
12.3 mg |
| Vitamin C |
(32%)
26.2 mg |
| Vitamin E |
(6%)
0.87 mg |
| Vitamin K |
(7%)
7.8 μg |
|
| Trace metals |
| Calcium |
(3%)
25 mg |
| Iron |
(5%)
0.69 mg |
| Magnesium |
(6%)
22 mg |
| Manganese |
(32%)
0.67 mg |
| Phosphorus |
(4%)
29 mg |
| Potassium |
(3%)
151 mg |
| Zinc |
(4%)
0.42 mg |
Link to USDA Database entry
|
- Units
- μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
- IU = International units
|
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database |
|
The aggregate fruit structure contributes to raspberry's nutritional value, as it increases the proportion of dietary fiber, which is among the highest known in whole foods, up to 6% fiber per total weight.[9] Raspberries are a rich source of vitamin C, with 26 mg per 100 g serving (32% Daily Value), manganese (32% Daily Value) and dietary fiber (26% Daily Value). Raspberries also have a moderate amount of vitamin K (7% Daily Value) and are a low-glycemic index food, with total sugar content of only 4% and no starch.[9]
Raspberries contain anthocyanin pigments, ellagic acid (from ellagotannins, see for instance the polyphenol ellagitannin), quercetin, gallic acid, cyanidins, pelargonidins, catechins, kaempferol and salicylic acid.[10] Yellow raspberries and others with pale-colored fruits are lower in anthocyanins. Both yellow and red raspberries contain carotenoids, mostly lutein esters, but these are masked by anthocyans in the red fruits.[11]
Animal research indicates antioxidant and antiproliferative (chemopreventive) effects may be associated with phenolics and flavonoids in raspberries.[12][13][14]
Commercial production
Top producers of raspberries in tons
Shown in 2011 order |
| Country |
2010 |
2011 |
| Russia |
125,000 |
27% |
140,000 |
26% |
| Poland |
92,864 |
20% |
117,995 |
22% |
| Serbia |
83,870 |
18% |
89,602 |
16% |
| United States |
36,741 |
8% |
48,948 |
9% |
| Ukraine |
25,700 |
5% |
28,100 |
5% |
| Mexico |
14,343 |
3% |
21,468 |
4% |
| United Kingdom |
17,000 |
4% |
16,761 |
3% |
| Canada |
11,864 |
3% |
12,285 |
2% |
| Azerbaijan |
10,100 |
2% |
11,000 |
2% |
| Spain |
9,226 |
2% |
9,559 |
2% |
| Total |
471,322 |
100% |
543,421 |
100% |
|
Source: UN FAOSTAT [15]
|
Worldwide raspberry yield
Leaves
Raspberry leaves can be used fresh or dried in herbal teas. They have an astringent flavor, and in herbal medicine are reputed to be effective in regulating menses.[citation needed]
Cultivation
Cultivated raspberry, in flower in a garden
Various kinds of raspberries can be cultivated from hardiness zones 3 to 9.[1] Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender, plug plants produced by tissue culture has become much more common. A specialized production system called "long cane production" involves growing canes for a year in a northern climate such as Scotland or Oregon or Washington, where the chilling requirement for proper bud break is attained, or attained earlier than the ultimate place of planting. These canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2-6 per m in fertile, well drained soil; raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, if there is any question about root rot problems.
The flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators.
Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive. They propagate using basal shoots (also known as suckers), extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant. For this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked.
Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions. Using cuttings preserves the genotype of the parent, and is the preferred method of propagation when making large plantings.[citation needed]
The fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color (red, black, purple, or golden yellow, depending on the species and cultivar). This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest. Excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen.
High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall and late spring. Furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they wouldn't otherwise survive. In the tunnel plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction.[16]
Selected important cultivars
fruits of
Rubus 'Wyoming', a purple raspberry cultivar
a young leaf of 'Glen Prosen', a red cultivar
Numerous raspberry cultivars have been selected.
Two types of raspberry are available for commercial and domestic cultivation; the summer-bearing type produces an abundance of fruit on second-year canes (floricanes) within a relatively short period in midsummer, and double or "everbearing" plants, which also bear some fruit on first-year canes (primocanes) in the late summer and fall, as well as the summer crop on second-year canes. Those marked (AGM) have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
- Red, early summer fruiting
- Boyne
- Fertödi Venus
- Rubin Bulgarski
- Cascade Dawn
- Glen Clova
- Glen Moy (AGM)[17]
- Killarney
- Malahat
- Malling Exploit
- Malling Jewel (AGM)[18]
- Titan
- Willamette
- Red, midsummer
- Cuthbert
- Glen Ample (AGM)[19]
- Glen Prosen (AGM)[20]
- Lloyd George
- Meeker
- Newburgh
- Ripley
- Skeena
- Cowichan
- Chemainus
- Saanich
- Red, late summer
- Cascade Delight
- Coho
- Fertödi Rubina
- Leo (AGM)[21]
- Malling Admiral (AGM)[22]
- Octavia
- Schoenemann
- Tulameen
- Red, primocane, fall, autumn fruiting
- Amity
- Augusta
- Autumn Bliss (AGM)[23]
- Joan J. (Thornless)
- Caroline
- Fertödi Kétszertermö
- Heritage
- Josephine
- Ripley
- Summit
- Zeva Herbsternte
- Gold/Yellow, primocane, fall, autumn fruiting
- Anne
- Fallgold
- Fertödi Aranyfürt
- Goldenwest
- Golden Queen
- Honey Queen
- Kiwi Gold
- Purple
- Black
- Black Hawk
- Bristol
- Cumberland
- Glencoe
- Jewel
- Munger
- Ohio Everbearer
- Scepter
Diseases and pests
|
This section requires expansion. (August 2007) |
Raspberries are sometimes eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths). Botrytis cinerea, or gray mould, is a common fungal infection of raspberries and other soft fruit under wet conditions. It is seen as a gray mould growing on the raspberries, and particularly affects fruit which are bruised, as it provides an easy entrance point for the spores.
Raspberry plants should not be planted where potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, or bulbs have previously been grown, without prior fumigation of the soil. These crops are hosts for the disease Verticillium wilt, a fungus that can stay in the soil for many years and can infest the raspberry crop.[24]
See also
- Chambord Liqueur Royale de France
- List of culinary fruits
- Raspberry ketone
- Red raspberry leaf, used as an herb
References
- ^ a b Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
- ^ Woolfrey, Sandra Marshall. A Country Mouse with one paw in the Village:Growing up in Prince Edward County (PDF).
- ^ Hedrick, U.P.; Howe, G.H.; Taylor, O.M.; Berger, A.; Slate, G.L.; Einset, O. (1925). The small fruits of New York. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon. page 96
- ^ "Rubus Leucodermis - Exoplantus". exoplantus.fr (archived 2011-08-23). Retrieved 2014-01-10.
- ^ Kempler, C.; Hall, H.; Finn, C. (2012). "Raspberry". In M.L. Badenes; D.H. Byrne. Fruit Breeding 8. Springer US. pp. 263–304.
- ^ Strick, B.C. "Growing Raspberries in Your Home Garden" (PDF). Growing Small Fruits. Oregon State University Extension Service. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
- ^ "Health and healing fact sheets, Red Raspberries".
- ^ Iannetta, P. P. M.; Wyman, M.; Neelam, A.; Jones, C.; Taylor, M. A.; Davies, H. V.; Sexton, R. (December 2000). "A causal role for ethylene and endo-beta-1,4-glucanase in the abscission of red-raspberry (Rubus idaeus) drupelets". Physiol. Plant. 110 (4): 535–543. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.2000.1100417.x.
- ^ a b "Nutrient data for raw raspberries, USDA Nutrient Database, SR-21". Conde Nast. 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
- ^ Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Presents Research from the 2007 International Berry Health Benefits Symposium, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry ACS Publications, February 2008
- ^ Carvalho, Elisabete; Fraser, P.D.; Martens, S. (2013). "Carotenoids and tocopherols in yellow and red raspberries". Food Chemistry 139: 744–752. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.12.047.
- ^ Liu M, Li XQ, Weber C, Lee CY, Brown J, Liu RH (May 2002). "Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of raspberries". J. Agric. Food Chem. 50 (10): 2926–30. doi:10.1021/jf0111209. PMID 11982421.
- ^ Heinonen M (June 2007). "Antioxidant activity and antimicrobial effect of berry phenolics—a Finnish perspective". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (6): 684–91. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700006. PMID 17492800.
- ^ Cerdá B, Tomás-Barberán FA, Espín JC (January 2005). "Metabolism of antioxidant and chemopreventive ellagitannins from strawberries, raspberries, walnuts, and oak-aged wine in humans: identification of biomarkers and individual variability". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (2): 227–35. doi:10.1021/jf049144d. PMID 15656654.
- ^ "Statistics from: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division". UN Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database.
- ^ "High Tunnel Raspberries and Blackberries", Department of Horticulture publication, Cathy Heidenreich, Marvin Pritts, Mary Jo Kelly., and Kathy Demchak
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Glen Moy' PBR (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Malling Jewel' (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Glen Ample' PBR (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Glen Prosen' PBR (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Leo' PBR (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Malling Admiral' (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ RHS Plant Selector Rubus idaeus 'Autumn Bliss' (F) AGM / RHS Gardening. Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
- ^ Spooner farms certified raspberry Plants "Planting Information"
Further reading
- Funt, R.C. / Hall, H.K. (2012). Raspberries (Crop Production Science in Horticulture). CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-791-1
External links
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Raspberry. |
|
Look up raspberry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
|
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
|
|
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Raspberry. |
- Raspberries & More (University of Illinois Extension)
