同: PL

WordNet

appearing to be as specified; usually used as combining forms; "left their clothes dirty looking"; "a most disagreeable looking character"; "angry-looking"; "liquid-looking"; "severe-looking policemen on noble horses"; "fine-sounding phrases"; "taken in by high-sounding talk" (同)sounding
the act of searching visually (同)looking for

PrepTutorEJDIC

優先の;差別的な

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/09/26 06:55:50」(JST)

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Preferential looking is an experimental method in developmental psychology used to gain insight into the young mind/brain. The method as used today was developed by the developmental psychologist Robert L. Fantz in the 1960s.^[1]

General account

In a preferential looking experiment, an infant is habituated to some stimulus or other—a visual display of interacting objects, for example. Then the infant is shown a second stimulus that differs from the first in a specific manner. If the average infant looks longer at the second stimulus, this suggests that the infant can discriminate between the stimuli. This method has been used extensively in cognitive science and developmental psychology to assess the character of infant's perceptual systems, and, by extension, innate cognitive faculties.

Summary of findings

Conclusions have been drawn from preferential looking experiments about the knowledge that infants possess. For example, if infants discriminate between rule-following and rule-violating stimuli—say, by looking longer, on average, at the former than the latter—then it has sometimes been concluded that infants know the rule.

Here is an example: 100 infants are shown an object that appears to teleport, violating the rule that objects move in continuous paths. Another 100 similar infants are shown an object that behaves in a nearly identical manner to the object from group 1, except that this object does not teleport. If this stimulus induces longer looking times than similar stimuli that do not involve teleportation, then, so the argument goes, infants expect that objects obey the continuity rule, and are surprised when they violate this rule. Some researchers have suggested, of some such experiments, that infants have innate knowledge of those rules the violation of which they can perceptually discriminate.

Common criticisms of this innateness thesis include that the infant has already acquired enough experience of non-teleporting objects to justify its surprise,^{[citation needed]} and that teleporting objects are attention-grabbing for reasons other than expectancy violation.^{[citation needed]}

Findings from preferential looking experiments have suggested that humans innately possess sets of beliefs about how objects interact ("folk physics" or "folk mechanics") and about how animate beings interact ("folk psychology").

Preferential looking experiments have been cited in support of hypotheses regarding a wide range of inborn cognitive capacities, including:

Depth perception
Face perception
Basic arithmetic (numeracy)^[2]^[3]

Extended example

The well-documented and often referred to example of Du Plaus (1972) involved a child of tender years playing with three differently colored pigeons. The child would almost always (93% of the time) spend more time feeding and playing with the brown pigeon, and substantially less time doing those same activities with the red and yellow pigeons. Du Plaus suggested that this was the result of children being genetically coded to prefer brown pigeons over red and yellow pigeons.

Labs using preferential looking

UIUC

http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~cfisher/LALAB/Projects.html#syntax

CWRU (Fantz, later Fagan et al)

http://blog.case.edu/case-news/2009/08/05/josephfaganmensa

Studies employing preferential looking

Ball, W.A. (April 1973). "The perception of causality in the infant". Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Philadelphia.

References

^ Leslie B. Cohen and Cara H. Cashon (2003). "Infant perception and cognition". Handbook of psychology: Developmental psychology 6. pp. 65–89.
^ Brannon, Elizabeth (April 2002). "The development of ordinal numerical knowledge in infancy". Cognition 83 (3): 223–240. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00005-7. PMID 11934402.
^ Wynn, Karen; Paul Bloom and Wen-Chi Chiang. "Enumeration of collective entities by 5-month-old infants". Cognition 83: B55–B62. doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(02)00008-2. Lay summary.

Spelke, E.S. (1994). Initial knowledge: Six suggestions. Cognition, 50, pp. 431–445. (Reprinted in J. Mehler and S. Franck (Eds.) Cognition on Cognition, pp. 433–48. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.)

UpToDate Contents

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1. 幼児および小児における視覚の発達および視力評価 visual development and vision assessment in infants and children

English Journal

False-belief understanding in 2.5-year-olds: evidence from two novel verbal spontaneous-response tasks.

Scott RM, He Z, Baillargeon R, Cummins D.SourceSchool of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts, University of California Merced, USA Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, China Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, USA.
Developmental science.Dev Sci.2012 Mar;15(2):181-93. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01103.x. Epub 2011 Nov 2.
Recent research indicates that toddlers and infants succeed at various non-verbal spontaneous-response false-belief tasks; here we asked whether toddlers would also succeed at verbal spontaneous-response false-belief tasks that imposed significant linguistic demands. We tested 2.5-year-olds using tw
PMID 22356174

Comprehension of Wh-Questions Precedes Their Production in Typical Development and Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Goodwin A, Fein D, Naigles LR.SourceDepartment of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut.
Autism research : official journal of the International Society for Autism Research.Autism Res.2012 Feb 22. doi: 10.1002/aur.1220. [Epub ahead of print]
Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) rarely produce wh-questions (e.g. "What hit the book ") in naturalistic speech. It is unclear if this is due to social-pragmatic difficulties, or if grammatical deficits are also involved. If grammar is impaired, production of wh-questions by rote memori
PMID 22359403

Japanese Journal

教育格差是正に向けた乳幼児発達支援の実践 : 発展途上国の教育開発と幼児教育(<特集>幼児教育の社会学)

浜野隆
教育社会学研究 88, 47-64, 2011-06-10
近年,幼児教育に対する関心は,先進国のみならず途上国においても高まっている。特に,1990年以降,途上国においては乳幼児人口の増加はほとんどないにもかかわらず,就園者数は著しく増加している。1990年のEFA宣言においては,幼児教育が基礎教育の一部として位置づけられ,そこでは,とくに恵まれない子どもたちに対する支援が強調された。また,世界銀行やユニセフなどを中心に,開発や人権などの観点から乳幼児の …
NAID 110008673096

乳児期における音による視覚探索の促進(マルチモーダル,感性情報処理,一般)

和田有史,白井述,大塚由美子,金沢創,山口真美
電子情報通信学会技術研究報告. HIP, ヒューマン情報処理 109(345), 115-118, 2009-12-10
成人ではディストラクタにまぎれて短時間しか提示されない視覚ターゲットの認知が,顕著な聴覚刺激を同時に提示することによって促進されることが示されている.Wadaら(2009)は,上記のターゲットと類似した条件で提示される4つのパックマン要素によって構成される主観的輪郭図形への選好注視が,生後7ヵ月から音によって促進されることを示した.これは乳児期の多感覚知覚システムの変容を示すものと考えられるが,主 …
NAID 110008004440

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