関: Polychaeta

WordNet

chiefly marine annelids possessing both sexes and having paired appendages (parapodia) bearing bristles (同)polychete, polychaete worm, polychete worm
marine annelid worms (同)class Polychaeta

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2012/10/11 16:08:49」(JST)

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The Polychaeta or polychaetes are a class of annelid worms, generally marine. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, which are made of chitin. Indeed, polychaetes are sometimes referred to as bristle worms. More than 10,000 species are described in this class. Common representatives include the lugworm (Arenicola marina) and the sandworm or clam worm Nereis.

Polychaetes as a class are robust and widespread, with species that live in the coldest ocean temperatures of the abyssal plain, to forms which tolerate the extreme high temperatures near hydrothermal vents. Polychaetes occur throughout the Earth's oceans at all depths, from forms that live as plankton near the surface, to a 2–3 cm specimen (still unclassified) observed by the robot ocean probe Nereus at the bottom of the Challenger Deep, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans.^[1] Only 168 species (less than 2% of all polychaetes) are known from freshwaters.^[2]

Description

Polychaetes are segmented worms, generally less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length, although ranging at the extremes from 1 millimetre (0.039 in) to 3 metres (9.8 ft). They are often brightly coloured, and may be iridescent or even luminescent. Each segment bears a pair of paddle-like and highly vascularized parapodia, which are used for movement and, in many species, act as the worm's primary respiratory surfaces. Bundles of bristles, called setae, project from the parapodia.^[3]

However, polychaetes vary widely from this generalised pattern, and can display a range of different body forms. The most generalised polychaetes are those that crawl along the bottom, but others have adapted to many different ecological niches, including burrowing, swimming, pelagic life, tube-dwelling or boring, commensalism, and parasitism, requiring various modifications to their body structure.

The head, or prostomium, is relatively well developed, compared with other annelids. It projects forward over the mouth, which therefore lies on the animal's underside. The head normally includes two to four pair of eyes, although there are some blind species. These are typically fairly simple structures, capable of distinguishing only light and dark, although some species have large eyes with lenses that may be capable of more sophisticated vision.^[3]

The head also includes a pair of antennae, tentacle-like palps, and a pair of pits lined with cilia, known as "nuchal organs". These latter appear to be chemoreceptors, and help the worm to seek out food.^[3]

Internal anatomy and physiology

General anatomy of a polychaete

The outer surface of the body wall consists of a simple columnar epithelium covered by a thin cuticle. Underneath this, in order, are a thin layer of connective tissue, a layer of circular muscle, a layer of longitudinal muscle, and a peritoneum surrounding the body cavity. Additional oblique muscles move the parapodia. In most species, the body cavity is divided into separate compartments by sheets of peritoneum between each segment, but in some species, it is more continuous.

The mouth of polychaetes varies in form depending on their diet, since the group includes predators, herbivores, filter feeders, scavengers, and parasites. In general, however, it possesses a pair of jaws and a pharynx that can be rapidly everted, allowing the worm to grab food and pull it into the mouth. In some species, the pharynx is modified into a lengthy proboscis. The digestive tract is a simple tube, usually with a stomach part way along.

The smallest species, and those adapted to burrowing, lack gills, breathing only through their body surface. Most other species, however, have external gills, generally, although not always, associated with the parapodia.

There is usually a well-developed, if simple, circulatory system. There are two main blood vessels, with smaller vessels to supply the parapodia and the gut. Blood flows forward in the dorsal vessel, above the gut, and returns back down the body in the ventral vessel, beneath the gut. The blood vessels themselves are contractile, helping to push the blood along, so most species have no need of a heart. In a few cases, however, muscular pumps analogous to a heart are found in various parts of the system. Conversely, some species have little or no circulatory system at all, transporting oxygen in the coelomic fluid that fills their body cavity.^[3]

The blood itself may be colourless, or have any of three different respiratory pigments. The most common of these is haemoglobin, but some groups have haemerythrin or the green-coloured chlorocruorin instead.

The nervous system consists of a single or double ventral nerve cord running the length of the body, with ganglia and a series of small nerves in each segment. The brain is relatively large, compared with that of other annelids, and lies in the upper part of the head. An endocrine gland is attached to the ventral posterior surface of the brain, and appears to be involved in reproductive activity. In addition to the sensory organs on the head, there may also photosensitive eye-spots on the body, statocysts, and numerous additional sensory nerve endings, most likely in involved with the sense of touch.^[3]

Polychaetes have a varying number of protonephridia or metanephridia for excreting waste, which in some cases can be relatively complex in structure. The body also contains greenish "chloragogen" tissue, similar to that found in oligochaetes, which appears to function in metabolism, in a similar fashion to that of the vertebrate liver.^[3]

Their cuticle is constructed from cross-linked fibres of collagen and may be 200 nm to 13mm thick. Their jaws are formed from sclerotised collagen, and their setae from sclerotised chitin.^[4]

Ecology

Christmas tree worms (Spirobranchus giganteus) from East Timor.

Polychaetes are extremely variable in both form and lifestyle and include a few taxa that swim among the plankton or above the abyssal plain. Most burrow or build tubes in the sediment, and some live as commensals. A few are parasitic. The mobile forms (Errantia) tend to have well-developed sense organs and jaws, while the stationary forms (Sedentaria) lack them but may have specialized gills or tentacles used for respiration and deposit or filter feeding, e.g., fanworms.

A few groups have evolved to live in terrestrial environments, like Namanereidinae with many terrestrial species, but are restricted to humid areas. Some have even evolved cutaneous invaginations for aerial gas exchange.

Sabellastarte spectabilis

Tomopteris from plankton

Notable polychaetes

One notable polychaete, the Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompejana) is endemic to the hydrothermal vents of the Pacific Ocean. Pompeii worms are among the most heat-tolerant complex animals known.
A recently discovered genus, Osedax, includes a species nicknamed the "bone-eating snot flower".^[5]
Another remarkable polychaete is Hesiocaeca methanicola, which lives on methane clathrate deposits.
Lamellibrachia luymesi is a cold seep tube worm that reaches lengths of over 3 metres and may be the most long-lived animal at over 250 years old.
A still unclassified multi-legged predatory polychaete worm was identified only by observation from the underwater vehicle Nareus at the bottom of the Challenger Deep, the greatest depth in the oceans, near 10,902 m (35,768 ft) depth. It was about an inch long visually, but the probe failed to capture it, so it could not be studied in detail.^[6]

Reproduction

Most polychaetes have separate sexes, rather than being hermaphroditic. The most primitive species have a pair of gonads in every segment, but, in most species, there has been some degree of specialisation. The gonads shed immature gametes directly into the body cavity, where they complete their development. Once mature, the gametes are shed into the surrounding water through ducts or openings that vary between species, or in some cases by the complete rupture of the body wall (and subsequent death of the adult). A few species copulate, but most fertilise the eggs externally.

The fertilized eggs typically hatch into trochophore larvae, which float among the plankton, and eventually metamorphose into the adult form by adding segments. A few species have no larval form, with the egg hatching into a form resembling the adult, and in many that do have larvae, the trochophore never feeds, surviving off the yolk that remains from the egg.^[3]

Some of the polychaetes exhibit remarkable reproductive strategies. Some species in the genus Eunicie reproduce by a process called epitoky. For much of the year, these worms look like any other burrow-dwelling polychaete, but as the breeding season approaches the worm undergoes a remarkable transformation as new, specialized segments begin to grow from its rear end until the worm can be clearly divided into two halves. The front half, the atoke, is asexual. The new rear half is responsible for breeding and is known as the epitoke.

Each of the epitoke segments is packed with eggs and sperm and features a single eyespot on its surface. The beginning of the last lunar quarter is the cue for these animals to breed and the epitokes break free from the atokes and float to the surface. The eye spots sense when the epitoke reaches the surface and the segments from millions of worms burst, releasing their eggs and sperm into the water.^[7]

Fossil record

Tube of a serpulid worm attached to a branch of the coral Cladocora from the Pliocene of Cyprus.

The oldest crown-group polychaete fossils come from the Sirius Passet Lagerstatte, a rich, sedimentary deposit in Greenland tentatively dated to the late Atdabanian (early Cambrian).^[8] Many of the more famous Burgess Shale organisms, such as Canadia and Wiwaxia, may also have polychaete affinities. An even older fossil, Cloudina, dates to the terminal Ediacaran period; this has been interpreted as an early polychaete, although consensus is absent.^[9]^[10]

Being soft bodied, the fossil record of polychaetes is dominated by their fossilized jaws, known as scolecodonts, and the mineralized tubes that some of them secrete.^[11] Most important biomineralising polychaetes are serpulids, sabellids and cirratulids. Polychaetes cuticle does have some preservation potential; it tends to survive for at least 30 days after a polychaete's death.^[4] Although biomineralisation is usually necessary to preserve soft tissue after this time, the presence of polychaete muscle in the non-mineralised Burgess shale shows that this need not always be the case.^[4] Their preservation potential is similar to that of jellyfish.^[4]

Taxonomy and systematics

Taxonomically, polychaetes are thought to be paraphyletic,^[12] meaning that the group excludes some descendants of its most recent common ancestor. Groups that may be descended from the polychaetes include the oligochaetes (earthworms and leeches), sipunculans, and echiurans. The Pogonophora and Vestimentifera were once considered separate phyla, but are now classified in the polychaete family Siboglinidae.

Much of the classification below matches Rouse & Fauchald, 1998, although that paper does not apply ranks above family.

Older classifications recognize many more (sub)orders than the layout presented here. As comparatively few polychaete taxa have been subject to cladistic analysis, some groups which are usually considered invalid today may eventually be reinstated.

These divisions given below were shown to be mostly paraphyletic in recent years.

Subclass Palpata
- Order Aciculata
  - Basal or incertae sedis
    - Family Aberrantidae
    - Family Nerillidae
    - Family Spintheridae
  - Suborder Eunicida
    - Family Amphinomidae
    - Family Diurodrilidae
    - Family Dorvilleidae
    - Family Eunicidae
    - Family Euphrosinidae
    - Family Hartmaniellidae
    - Family Histriobdellidae
    - Family Lumbrineridae
    - Family Oenonidae
    - Family Onuphidae
  - Suborder Phyllodocida
    - Family Acoetidae
    - Family Alciopidae
    - Family Aphroditidae
    - Family Chrysopetalidae
    - Family Eulepethidae
    - Family Glyceridae
    - Family Goniadidae
    - Family Hesionidae
    - Family Ichthyotomidae
    - Family Iospilidae
    - Family Lacydoniidae
    - Family Lopadorhynchidae
    - Family Myzostomatidae
    - Family Nautillienellidae
    - Family Nephtyidae
    - Family Nereididae
    - Family Paralacydoniidae
    - Family Pholoidae
    - Family Phyllodocidae
    - Family Pilargidae
    - Family Pisionidae
    - Family Polynoidae
    - Family Pontodoridae
    - Family Sigalionidae
    - Family Sphaeodoridae
    - Family Syllidae
    - Family Typhloscolecidae
    - Family Tomopteridae
- Order Canalipalpata
  - Basal or incertae sedis
    - Family Polygordiidae
    - Family Protodrilidae
    - Family Protodriloididae
    - Family Saccocirridae
  - Suborder Sabellida
    - Family Oweniidae
    - Family Siboglinidae (formerly the phyla Pogonophora & Vestimentifera)
    - Family Serpulidae
    - Family Sabellidae
    - Family Sabellariidae
    - Family Spirorbidae
  - Suborder Spionida
    - Family Apistobranchidae
    - Family Chaetopteridae
    - Family Longosomatidae
    - Family Magelonidae
    - Family Poecilochaetidae
    - Family Spionidae
    - Family Trochochaetidae
    - Family Uncispionidae
  - Suborder Terebellida
    - Family Acrocirridae (sometimes placed in Spionida)
    - Family Alvinellidae
    - Family Ampharetidae
    - Family Cirratulidae (sometimes placed in Spionida)
    - Family Ctenodrilidae (sometimes own suborder Ctenodrilida)
    - Family Fauveliopsidae (sometimes own suborder Fauveliopsida)
    - Family Flabelligeridae (sometimes suborder Flabelligerida)
    - Family Flotidae (sometimes included in Flabelligeridae)
    - Family Pectinariidae
    - Family Poeobiidae (sometimes own suborder Poeobiida or included in Flabelligerida)
    - Family Sternaspidae (sometimes own suborder Sternaspida)
    - Family Terebellidae
    - Family Trichobranchidae
Subclass Scolecida
- Family Aeolosomatidae
- Family Arenicolidae
- Family Capitellidae
- Family Cossunidae
- Family Maldanidae
- Family Opheliidae
- Family Orbiniidae
- Family Paraonidae
- Family Parergodrilidae
- Family Potamodrilidae
- Family Psammodrilidae
- Family Questidae
- Family Scalibregmatidae

References

Bibliography

Campbell, Reece, and Mitchell. Biology. 1999.
Rouse, Greg W.; Fauchald, Kristian (1998). "Recent views on the status, delineation, and classification of the Annelida". American Zoologist 38 (6): 953–964. doi:10.1093/icb/38.6.953.

Notes

^ Geography of Guam ns.gov.gu Accessed Oct. 8, 2009
^ Cristopher Glasby, Tarmo Timm (2008). Global diversity of polychaetes (Polychaeta: Annelida) in freshwater. In E. V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens. "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment". Hydrobiologia 595 (1): 107–115. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9008-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 469–525. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Briggs, D.E.G.; Kear, A.J. (January 1, 1993). "Decay and preservation of polychaetes; taphonomic thresholds in soft-bodied organisms". Paleobiology 19 (1): 107–135. http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/1/107
^ "'Zombie worms' found off Sweden". BBC News. 18 October 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4354286.stm. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
^ Accessed Oct. 8, 2009 Geography of the ocean floor near Guam with some notes on exploration of the Challenger Deep.
^ Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.
^ Conway Morris, S. and Peel, J.S. 2008. The earliest annelids: Lower Cambrian polychaetes from the Sirius Passet Lagerstätte, Peary Land, North Greenland. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 53 (1): 137–148.
^ Miller, A.J. (2004). "A revised morphology of Cloudina with ecological and phylogenetic implications" (PDF). http://ajm.pioneeringprojects.org/files/CloudinaPaper_Final.pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-24
^ Vinn, O.; Zatoń, M. (2012). "Inconsistencies in proposed annelid affinities of early biomineralized organism Cloudina (Ediacaran): structural and ontogenetic evidences". Carnets de Géologie (CG2012_A03): 39–47. doi:10.4267/2042/46095. http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2012_A03/index.html. Retrieved 2012-08-29.
^ Vinn, O.; Mutvei, H. (2009). "Calcareous tubeworms of the Phanerozoic". Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences 58 (4): 286–296. doi:10.3176/earth.2009.4.07. http://www.eap.ee/public/Estonian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences/2009/issue_4/earth-2009-4-286-296.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
^ Westheide, W. 1997. The direction of evolution within the Polychaeta. J. Nat. Hist. 31:1-15.

External links

Wikispecies has information related to: Polychaeta

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Polychaeta

Special issue of Marine Ecology dedicated to polychaetes
Marine Polychaete Larva, a guide to the marine zooplankton of south eastern Australia
Barry the giant sea worm discovered by aquarium staff after mysterious attacks on coral reef, Daily Mail
Key to Families of Polychaetes, Natural History Museum
Polychaetes.info, a searchable database of polychaete species descriptions and records

English Journal

Biochemical and behavioural responses of the marine polychaete Hediste diversicolor to cadmium sulfide quantum dots (CdS QDs): Waterborne and dietary exposure.

Buffet PE1, Poirier L2, Zalouk-Vergnoux A2, Lopes C3, Amiard JC2, Gaudin P2, Risso-de Faverney C4, Guibbolini M4, Gilliland D5, Perrein-Ettajani H1, Valsami-Jones E6, Mouneyrac C7.Author information 1LUNAM Université, Université de Nantes, MMS, 9 rue Bias BP53508, 44035 Nantes Cedex 1, France; LUNAM Université, Université Catholique de l'Ouest, MMS, 3, Place André Leroy, 49000 Angers Cedex 1, France.2LUNAM Université, Université de Nantes, MMS, 9 rue Bias BP53508, 44035 Nantes Cedex 1, France.3Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5558, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France.4Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, EA 4228 ECOMERS, Faculté des Sciences, Parc Valrose, BP 71, 06108 Nice Cedex 2, France.5Institute For Health and Consumer Protection European Commission, DG JRC Via E. Fermi, I-21027 Ispra, VA, Italy.6School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom; Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK.7LUNAM Université, Université de Nantes, MMS, 9 rue Bias BP53508, 44035 Nantes Cedex 1, France; LUNAM Université, Université Catholique de l'Ouest, MMS, 3, Place André Leroy, 49000 Angers Cedex 1, France. Electronic address: catherine.mouneyrac@uco.fr.AbstractCadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dots are widely used in medical imaging. The aim of this study was to examine toxicity effects of CdS engineered nanoparticles (CdS NPs) compared to soluble Cd, on marine ragworms (Hediste diversicolor) exposed for 14d to these contaminants (10μgCdL(-1)) in seawater or via their food (contaminated worm tissue). In our experimental media, Dynamic Light Scattering studies showed that the majority of CdS remained in the nanoscale (1-10nm) with the exception of few aggregates (100-300nm). Labile Cd fractions released from CdS NPs were estimated by diffusive gradient in thin films, showing that about 50% of CdS NPs remained in nanoparticulate form. Ragworms accumulated Cd in both soluble Cd and CdS NPs in waterborne exposures only. Greater significant changes of biochemical responses were observed in worms exposed to CdS NPs in seawater compared to contaminated food. Catalase and glutathione-S-transferase activities were the most sensitive biochemical biomarkers responding to both Cd treatments for waterborne exposure. Inductions of CAT were higher in diet-exposed worms to Cd as NPs vs soluble form suggesting a specific "nano" effect. Caspase activities increased in worms exposed to soluble Cd and Cd NPs for the two routes of exposure compared to controls. Defences, may be insufficient to prevent reactive oxygen species generation and the associated apoptosis. Behaviour of invertebrates inside sediment showed impairments of body movements in worms exposed to CdS NPs. This study points out oxidative processes as the main consequences of exposure to Cd based NPs in worms.
Chemosphere.Chemosphere.2014 Apr;100:63-70. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.12.069. Epub 2014 Jan 27.
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dots are widely used in medical imaging. The aim of this study was to examine toxicity effects of CdS engineered nanoparticles (CdS NPs) compared to soluble Cd, on marine ragworms (Hediste diversicolor) exposed for 14d to these contaminants (10μgCdL(-1)) in seawater or
PMID 24480429

Recolonization of macrozoobenthos on defaunated sediments in a hypertrophic brackish lagoon: Effects of sulfide removal and sediment grain size.

Kanaya G.Author information Biological Institute, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Aramaki-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan. Electronic address: gen@nies.go.jp.AbstractInfluences of sediment types on recolonization of estuarine macrozoobenthos were tested using enclosures in a hypertrophic lagoon. Three types of azoic sediment, sand (S), sulfide-rich mud (M), and mud removed of sulfide through iron addition (MFe), were set in field for 35 days during a hypoxic period. A total of 14 taxa including opportunistic polychaetes and amphipods occurred. Infaunal community in S treatment was characterized by highest diversity, total density and biomass, and population density of five dominant taxa, while those parameters were lowest in M treatment. Sulfide removal in MFe treatment achieved much higher density, biomass, and population densities of several taxa in the sediment. Multivariate analyses demonstrated that the established community structure was unique to each treatment. These imply that dissolved sulfide level as well as sediment grain size is a key determinant for the community composition and recolonization speed of early colonists in estuarine soft-bottom habitats.
Marine environmental research.Mar Environ Res.2014 Apr;95:81-8. doi: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.12.014. Epub 2014 Jan 8.
Influences of sediment types on recolonization of estuarine macrozoobenthos were tested using enclosures in a hypertrophic lagoon. Three types of azoic sediment, sand (S), sulfide-rich mud (M), and mud removed of sulfide through iron addition (MFe), were set in field for 35 days during a hypoxic per
PMID 24447433

Larval stages of the bluefin tuna blood fluke Cardicola opisthorchis (Trematoda: Aporocotylidae) found from Terebella sp. (Polychaeta: Terebellidae).

Sugihara Y1, Yamada T2, Tamaki A3, Yamanishi R4, Kanai K3.Author information 1Nagasaki Prefectural Institute of Fisheries, Nagasaki 851-2213, Japan. Electronic address: sugihara013465@pref.nagasaki.lg.jp.2Nagasaki Prefectural Institute of Fisheries, Nagasaki 851-2213, Japan.3Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan.4Osaka Museum of Natural History, Osaka 546-0034, Japan.AbstractWe found aporocotylid larval stages (sporocysts and cercariae) from five individuals of terebellid polychaete Terebella sp., which were collected from seabed substrate and ropes and floats attached to tuna cages in a tuna farm on the coast of Tsushima Island, Nagasaki, Japan. Nucleotide sequences of the regions of internal transcribed spacer 2 ribosomal DNA and 28S ribosomal DNA from these larval stages were 100% identical to those of Cardicola opisthorchis registered in GenBank. C. opisthorchis is a pathogen causing blood fluke infection of Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis, which is considered to have a significant impact on the Japanese Pacific bluefin tuna aquaculture industry. This is the first description of the intermediate host of C. opisthorchis. This indicates that the life cycle of C. opisthorchis is completed within tuna farms in this area.
Parasitology international.Parasitol Int.2014 Apr;63(2):295-9. doi: 10.1016/j.parint.2013.11.010. Epub 2013 Dec 1.
We found aporocotylid larval stages (sporocysts and cercariae) from five individuals of terebellid polychaete Terebella sp., which were collected from seabed substrate and ropes and floats attached to tuna cages in a tuna farm on the coast of Tsushima Island, Nagasaki, Japan. Nucleotide sequences of
PMID 24291605

Japanese Journal

Three species of Amphicorina (Annelida, Sabellida, Sabellidae) from Japan, with descriptions of two new species

Yoshihara Taiki,Hiruta Shimpei F.,Katoh Toru,Kajihara Hiroshi
ZooKeys 187, 45-62, 2012-04-27
… We describe two new species and redescribe one in the polychaete genus Amphicorina Claparède, 1864 (Sabellidae) from Hokkaido, Japan. …
NAID 120004448495

イトゴカイとマイクロバブルによる環境修復と微生物活動

堤裕昭
日本水産學會誌 = Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 78(2), 282, 2012-03-15
NAID 10030124165

Feeding preference of threadsail filefish Stephanolepis cirrhifer on moon jellyfish and lobworm in the laboratory

Miyajima Yuko,Masuda Reiji,Yamashita Yoh
Plankton & benthos research 6(1), 12-17, 2011-02-01
We examined feeding preference in the threadsail filefish Stephanolepis cirrhifer on jellyfish and lobworm. Juvenile filefish were fed moon jellyfish Aurelia sp. and/or lobworm Perinereis nuntia valla …
NAID 10027957937

Related Pictures

★リンクテーブル★

リンク元	「多毛類」「Polychaeta」

「多毛類」

Polychaetes; Temporal range: 530–0 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N Cambrian (or earlier?) - present
	"A variety of marine worms": plate from Das Meer by M.J. Schleiden (1804–1881).
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Annelida
Class:	Polychaeta; Grube, 1850
Subclasses
	Palpata; Scolecida

　　[★]

英: polychaete、Polychaeta
関: 多毛綱

「Polychaeta」

　　[★]

多毛類、多毛綱

関: polychaete

[0] Geography of Guam ns.gov.gu Accessed Oct. 8, 2009

[1] Cristopher Glasby, Tarmo Timm (2008). Global diversity of polychaetes (Polychaeta: Annelida) in freshwater. In E. V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens. "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment". Hydrobiologia 595 (1): 107–115. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9008-2.

[IZ-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 469–525. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.

[Briggs1993-3] Briggs, D.E.G.; Kear, A.J. (January 1, 1993). "Decay and preservation of polychaetes; taphonomic thresholds in soft-bodied organisms". Paleobiology 19 (1): 107–135. http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/1/107

[BBCNews_Science.26Environment_18Oct2005_Osedaxspp-4] "'Zombie worms' found off Sweden". BBC News. 18 October 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4354286.stm. Retrieved 12 February 2010.

[5] Accessed Oct. 8, 2009 Geography of the ocean floor near Guam with some notes on exploration of the Challenger Deep.

[6] Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.

[7] Conway Morris, S. and Peel, J.S. 2008. The earliest annelids: Lower Cambrian polychaetes from the Sirius Passet Lagerstätte, Peary Land, North Greenland. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 53 (1): 137–148.

[Miller-8] Miller, A.J. (2004). "A revised morphology of Cloudina with ecological and phylogenetic implications" (PDF). http://ajm.pioneeringprojects.org/files/CloudinaPaper_Final.pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-24

[VinnZaton-9] Vinn, O.; Zatoń, M. (2012). "Inconsistencies in proposed annelid affinities of early biomineralized organism Cloudina (Ediacaran): structural and ontogenetic evidences". Carnets de Géologie (CG2012_A03): 39–47. doi:10.4267/2042/46095. http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2012_A03/index.html. Retrieved 2012-08-29.

[VinnMutvei2009tubeworms-10] Vinn, O.; Mutvei, H. (2009). "Calcareous tubeworms of the Phanerozoic". Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences 58 (4): 286–296. doi:10.3176/earth.2009.4.07. http://www.eap.ee/public/Estonian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences/2009/issue_4/earth-2009-4-286-296.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-15.

[11] Westheide, W. 1997. The direction of evolution within the Polychaeta. J. Nat. Hist. 31:1-15.

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