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First stages of segmentation of a mammalian embryo. Semidiagrammatic. z.p. Zona pellucida. p.gl. Polar bodies. a. Two-cell stage. b. Four-cell stage. c. Eight-cell stage. d, e. Morula stage.

A polar body is a small haploid cell that is formed concomitantly as an egg cell during oogenesis, but which generally does not have the ability to be fertilized. When certain diploid cells in animals undergo cytokinesis after meiosis to produce egg cells, they sometimes divide unevenly. Most of the cytoplasm is segregated into one daughter cell, which becomes the egg or ovum, while the smaller polar bodies only get a small amount of cytoplasm. They frequently die (apoptose) and disappear, but in some cases they remain and can be important in the life cycle of the organism.^[1]

Twinning

Polar body twinning is a hypothesized form of twinning in meiosis, where one or more polar bodies do not disintegrate and are fertilized by sperm.^[2]

Twinning would occur, in principle, if the egg cell and a polar body were both fertilized by separate sperms. However, even if fertilization occurs, further development would usually not occur because the zygote formed by the fusion of the sperm and polar body would not have enough cytoplasm or stored nutrients to feed the developing embryo.

Additional images

Diagram showing the reduction in number of the chromosomes in the process of maturation of the ovum.
Scheme showing analogies in the process of maturation of the ovum and the development of the spermatids.
The process of fertilization in the ovum of a mouse.

Polar bodies were first identified and characterized in the early 20th century, primarily by O. Hertwig, T. Boveri, and E.L. Mark. They were described as non-functioning egg cells which disintegrated because the spermatozoon, with rare exceptions, could not fertilize them and instead chemically triggered their dissolution.^[3]

Polar bodies serve to eliminate one half of the diploid chromosome set produced by meiotic division in the egg, leaving behind a haploid cell. To produce the polar bodies, the cell must divide asymmetrically, which is fueled by furrowing (formation of a trench) near a particular point on the cell membrane. The presence of chromosomes induces the formation of an actomyosin cortical cap, a myosin II ring structure and a set of spindle fibers, the rotation of which promotes invagination at the edge of the cell membrane and splits the polar body away from the oocyte.^[4]

Meiotic errors can lead to aneuploidy in the polar bodies, which, in the majority of cases, produces an aneuploid zygote. Errors can occur during either of the two meiotic divisions that produce each polar body, but are more pronounced if they occur during the formation of the first polar body, because the formation of the first polar body influences the chromosomal makeup of the second. For example, predivision (the separation of chromatids before anaphase) in the first polar body can induce the formation of an aneuploid polar body. Therefore, the formation of the first polar body is an especially important factor in forming a healthy zygote.^[5] However, chromosomally abnormal polar bodies are not guaranteed to induce the development of an abnormal zygote. A euploid zygote can be produced if the aneuploidy is reciprocal: one polar body has an extra chromosome and the other lacks the same chromosome. If the extra chromosome is absorbed into a polar body rather than being passed into the oocyte, trisomy can be avoided; whether this is a chance event or is some way influenced by the microenvironment is unclear. In at least one case, this euploid zygote has been traced through development to birth as a healthy child with a normal chromosome count.^[6]

Medical applications

A polar body biospy is the sampling of a polar body of an oocyte. After sampling of a polar body, subsequent analysis can be used to predict viability and pregnancy chance of the oocyte, as well as the future health of a person resulting such pregnancy. The latter use makes it a form of preimplantation genetic screening (PGS). Compared to a blastocyst biopsy, a polar body biopsy can potentially be of lower costs, less harmful side-effects, and more sensitive in detecting abnormalities.^[6] The main advantage of the use of polar bodies in PGD is that they are not necessary for successful fertilisation or normal embryonic development, thus ensuring no deleterious effect for the embryo. One of the disadvantages of PB biopsy is that it only provides information about the maternal contribution to the embryo, which is why cases of autosomal dominant and X-linked disorders that are maternally transmitted can be diagnosed, and autosomal recessive disorders can only partially be diagnosed. Another drawback is the increased risk of diagnostic error, for instance due to the degradation of the genetic material or events of recombination that lead to heterozygous first polar bodies.

References

^ Schmerler, S.; G.M. Wessel (2011). "Polar bodies—more a lack of understanding than a lack of respect.". Mol. Reprod. Dev 78: 3–8. doi:10.1002/mrd.21266. Retrieved May 24, 2012.
^ Kris Bigalk. "Rare Forms of Twinning". bellaonline.com. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
^ "Why Polar Bodies Do Not Develop". Conklin, E.G. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of American Vol. 1, pp. 491-496. Department of Biology, Princeton University. 1915.
^ "Mechanism of the chromosome-induced polar body extrusion in mouse eggs". Wang Qiong, Catharine Racowsky, Manqi Deng. Cell Division, Vol. 6, 17. 2011.
^ "What next for preimplantation genetic screening? A polar body approach!". Geraedts, Joep et al. Human Reproduction Vol. 25,3 pp. 575-577. 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Delivery of a chromosomally normal child from an oocyte with reciprocal aneuploid polar bodies". Scott Jr, Richard T., Nathan R. Treff, John Stevens, Eric J. Forman, Kathleen H. Hong, Mandy G. Katz-Jaffe, William B. Schoolcraft. Journal of Assisted Reproductive Genetics Vol. 29 pp. 533-537. 2012.

English Journal

[Effect of electro-acupuncture on the spindle and oocytes quality in patients with PCOS].

Li J, Cui W, Sun W, Zhang QY, Guan Q.
Zhongguo Zhong xi yi jie he za zhi Zhongguo Zhongxiyi jiehe zazhi = Chinese journal of integrated traditional and Western medicine / Zhongguo Zhong xi yi jie he xue hui, Zhongguo Zhong yi yan jiu yuan zhu ban.Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi.2015 Mar;35(3):304-9.
OBJECTIVE: To observe the effect of electro-acupuncture (EA) treatment on the oocyte quality in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) patients undergoing in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer (IVF-ET).METHODS: Totally 217 PCOS patients undergoing IVF-ET were assigned to two groups by random digit tabl
PMID 25951635

[Contribution of chromosomal abnormalities to in vitro fertilization failures].

Smith R1, Walker L, Cobo AC, Vantman D.
Revista médica de Chile.Rev Med Chil.1998 May;126(5):511-9.
BACKGROUND: Present knowledge of mechanisms involved in human fertilization has uncovered a new group of pathologic conditions that have been generically named fertilization abnormalities.AIM: To determine the contribution of chromosomal alterations to in vitro fertilization failures.MATERIALS AND M
PMID 9731432

Japanese Journal

A Case of Focal Epithelial Hyperplasia of the Gingiva.

河原健司,木下靱彦,本間義郎,小園知,志村介三
日本口腔科学会雑誌 44(1), 112-115, 1995
… observation also confirmed numerous large-scale cells with light cytoplasm (so-called "Koilocytotic atypia") in the region extending from the polocyte stratum to the cortex.<BR>Immunohistological references confirmed the existence of positive cells of human papilloma virus in the epithelium. …
NAID 130004335552

A Cytological Study on the Maturation Division in the Oogenic Process of the Triploid Ginbuna (Carassius auratus langsdorfii)

小林弘
魚類学雑誌 22(4), 234-240, 1976
… and the ginbuna (<I>C.auratus langsdorfii</I>);both were collected from Kasumigaura.The egg cells of the kinbuna contained nuclei at metaphase of the second maturation division and had a first polocyte, while those of the ginbuna showed nuclei at metaphase of a single maturation division without a first polocyte.The mean diameter of the nuclear plates of 20 egg cells was 6.32 μ it for the kinbuna and it was 12.28 μ, a for the ginbuna.The nuclear plate in the ginbuna was twice larger than that in the kinbuna in …
NAID 130003825960