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Geometry |
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Oxyrhynchus papyrus (P.Oxy. I 29) showing fragment of Euclid's Elements
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History of geometry |
Branches
Euclidean geometry · Non-Euclidean geometry · Analytic geometry · Riemannian geometry · Differential geometry ·Projective geometry· Algebraic geometry
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Research areas
Algebraic geometry · Differential geometry · Symplectic geometry
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Important concepts
Point · Line · Perpendicular · Parallel · Line segment · Ray · Plane · Length · Area · Volume · Vertex · Angle · Congruence · Similarity · Polygon · Triangle · Altitude · Hypotenuse · Pythagorean theorem · Quadrilateral · Trapezoid · Kite · Parallelogram (Rhomboid, Rectangle, Rhombus, Square) · Diagonal · Symmetry · Curve · Circle · Area of a disk · Circumference · Diameter · Cylinder · Sphere · Pyramid · Dimensions (one, two, three, four)
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Geometers
Aryabhata · Ahmes · Apolonius · Archimedes · Baudhayana · Bolyai · Brahmagupta · Euclid · Pythagoras · Khayyám · Descartes · Pascal · Euler · Gauss · Ibn al-Yasamin · Jyeṣṭhadeva · Kātyāyana · Lobachevsky · Manava · Minggatu · Riemann · Klein · Parameshvara · Poincaré · Sijzi · Hilbert · Minkowski · Cartan · Veblen · Sakabe Kōhan · Gromov · Atiyah · Virasena · Yang Hui · Yasuaki Aida · Zhang Heng
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In elementary geometry, the word perpendicular describes the relationship between two lines which meet at a right angle.
A line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the two lines intersect at a right angle. Explicitly, a first line is perpendicular to a second line if 1) the two lines meet and 2) at the point of intersection the straight angle on one side of the first line is cut by the second line into two congruent angles. Perpendicularity can be shown to be symmetric, meaning if a first line is perpendicular to a second line, then the second line is also perpendicular to the first. For this reason, we may speak of two lines as being perpendicular (to each other) without specifying an order.
Perpendicularity easily extends to segments and rays. For example, we say a line segment is perpendicular to a line segment if, when each is extended in both directions to form an infinite line, these two resulting lines are perpendicular in the sense above. In symbols, we write to mean line segment AB is perpendicular to line segment CD.
A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it intersects. Note that this definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between lines.
Two planes in space are said to be perpendicular if the dihedral angle at which they meet is a right angle (90 degrees).
In fact, perpendicularity is one particular instance of the more general mathematical concept of orthogonality; perpendicularity is the orthogonality of classical geometric objects. Thus in advanced mathematics, the word perpendicular is sometimes used to describe much more complicated geometric orthogonality conditions, such as that between a surface and its normal.
To make the perpendicular to the line AB through the point P using compass and straightedge, proceed as follows (see figure):
To prove that the PQ is perpendicular to AB, use the SSS congruence theorem for ' and QPB' to conclude that angles OPA' and OPB' are equal. Then use the SAS congruence theorem for triangles OPA' and OPB' to conclude that angles POA and POB are equal.
In a Cartesian coordinate system, if two lines are each not parallel to either of the coordinate axes, then the two lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their gradients is −1.
If two lines (a and b) are both perpendicular to a third line (c), all of the angles formed along the third line are right angles. Therefore, in Euclidean geometry, any two lines that are both perpendicular to a third line are parallel to each other, because of the parallel postulate. Conversely, if one line is perpendicular to a second line, it is also perpendicular to any line parallel to that second line.
In the figure at the right, all of the orange-shaded angles are congruent to each other and all of the green-shaded angles are congruent to each other, because vertical angles are congruent and alternate interior angles formed by a transversal cutting parallel lines are congruent. Therefore, if lines a and b are parallel, any of the following conclusions leads to all of the others:
In the 2-dimensional plane, right angles can be formed by two intersected lines which the product of their slopes equals to −1. More precisely, defining two linear functions: y1 = a1x + b1 and y2 = a2x + b2, the graph of the functions will be perpendicular and will make four right angles where the lines intersect if and only if a1a2 = −1. However, this method cannot be used if the slope is zero or undefined (the line is parallel to an axis).
For another method, let the two linear functions: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0. The lines will be perpendicular if and only if a1a2 + b1b2 = 0. This method is simplified from the dot product (or generally, inner product) of vectors. In particular, two vectors are considered orthogonal if their inner product is zero.
Look up perpendicular in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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