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- 知覚力(洞察力)のある
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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2015/09/06 08:50:35」(JST)
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For the 1934 book by Joseph Banks Rhine, see Extrasensory Perception (book).
Zener cards were first used in the 1930s for experimental research into ESP.
Extrasensory perception or ESP, also called sixth sense, includes reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses but sensed with the mind. The term was adopted by Duke University psychologist J. B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as telepathy, clairaudience, and clairvoyance, and their trans-temporal operation as precognition or retrocognition. ESP is also sometimes referred to as a sixth sense. The term implies acquisition of information by means external to the basic limiting assumptions of science, such as that organisms can only receive information from the past to the present.
Parapsychology is the study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including ESP. Parapsychologists generally regard such tests as the ganzfeld experiment as providing compelling evidence for the existence of ESP.
The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP, the lack of experimental techniques which can provide reliably positive results,[1][2][3][4][5] and considers ESP to be non-existent.[6][7]
Contents
- 1 History
- 1.1 J.B. Rhine
- 1.2 Early British research
- 1.3 Sequence, position and psychological effects
- 1.4 Cognitive and humanistic research
- 2 Parapsychological investigation of ESP
- 3 Skepticism
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 Further reading
- 7 External links
History
J.B. Rhine
In the 1930s, at Duke University in North Carolina J. B. Rhine and his wife Louisa tried to develop psychical research into an experimental science. To avoid the connotations of hauntings and the seance room, they renamed it "parapsychology". While Louisa Rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases, J. B. Rhine worked largely in the laboratory, carefully defining terms such as ESP and psi and designing experiments to test them. A simple set of cards was developed, originally called Zener cards[8] - now called ESP cards. They bear the symbols circle, square, wavy lines, cross, and star; there are five cards of each in a pack of 25.
In a telepathy experiment, the "sender" looks at a series of cards while the "receiver" guesses the symbols. To try to observe clairvoyance, the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses. To try to observe precognition, the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made.
In all such experiments order of the cards must be random so that hits are not obtained through systematic biases or prior knowledge. At first the cards were shuffled by hand, then by machine. Later, random number tables were used, nowadays, computers. An advantage of ESP cards is that statistics can easily be applied to determine whether the number of hits obtained is higher than would be expected by chance. Rhine used ordinary people as subjects and claimed that, on average, they did significantly better than chance expectation. Later he used dice to test for psychokinesis and also claimed results that were better than chance.
In 1940, Rhine, J.G. Pratt, and others at Duke authored a review of all card-guessing experiments conducted internationally since 1882 titled Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years. It included details of replications of Rhine's studies. Through these years, 50 studies were published, of which 33 were contributed by investigators other than Rhine and the Duke University group; 61% of these independent studies reported significant results suggestive of ESP.[9] Among these were psychologists at Colorado University and Hunter College, New York, who completed the studies with the largest number of trials and the highest levels of significance.[10][11] Replication failures encouraged Rhine to further research into the conditions necessary to experimentally produce the effect. He maintained, however, that it was not replicability, or even a fundamental theory of ESP that would evolve research, but only a greater interest in unconscious mental processes and a more complete understanding of human personality.[12]
Early British research
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One of the first statistical studies of ESP, using card-guessing, was conducted by Ina Jephson, in the 1920s. She reported mixed findings across two studies. More successful experiments were conducted with procedures other than card-guessing. G.N.M. Tyrrell used automated target-selection and data-recording in guessing the location of a future point of light. Whateley Carington experimented on the paranormal cognition of drawings of randomly selected words, using participants from across the globe. J. Hettinger studied the ability to retrieve information associated with token objects.[13]
Less successful was University of London mathematician Samuel Soal in his attempted replications of the card-guessing studies. However, following a hypothesis suggested by Carington on the basis of his own findings, Soal re-analysed his data for evidence of what Carington termed displacement. Soal discovered, to his surprise, that four of his former participants, Randolph Tucker Pendleton IV, Amanda Bailey, Ling Dao and Rachel Brown, evidenced displacement: i.e., their responses significantly corresponded to targets for trials one removed from which they were assigned. Soal sought to confirm this finding by testing these participants in new experiments. Conducted during the war years, into the 1950s, under tightly controlled conditions, they produced highly significant results suggestive of precognitive telepathy. The findings were convincing for many other scientists and philosophers regarding telepathy and the claims of Rhine, but were also prominently critiqued as fraudulent, until, following Soal's death in 1975, support for them was largely abandoned.
Sequence, position and psychological effects
Rhine and other parapsychologists found that some subjects, or some conditions, produced significant below-chance scoring (psi-missing); or that scores declined during the testing (the "decline effect").[14][15] Some such "internal effects" in ESP scores have also appeared to be idiosyncratic to particular participants or research methods. Most notable is the focusing effect identified in the decade-long research with Pavel Stepanek.
Personality measures have also been tested. People who believe in psi ("sheep") tend to score above chance, while those who do not believe in psi ("goats") show null results or psi-missing. This has become known as the "sheep-goat effect".[16]
Prediction of decline and other position effects has proved challenging, although they have been often identified in data gathered for the purpose of observing other effects.[17] Personality and attitudinal effects have shown greater predictability, with meta-analysis of parapsychological databases showing the sheep-goat effect, and other traits, to have significant and reliable effects over the accumulated data.[18][19]
Cognitive and humanistic research
In the 1960s, in line with the development of cognitive psychology and humanistic psychology, parapsychologists became increasingly interested in the cognitive components of ESP, the subjective experience involved in making ESP responses, and the role of ESP in psychological life. Memory, for instance, was offered as a better model of psi than perception. This called for experimental procedures that were not limited to Rhine's favoured forced-choice methodology. Free-response measures, such as used by Carington in the 1930s, were developed with attempts to raise the sensitivity of participants to their cognitions. These procedures included relaxation, meditation, REM-sleep, and the Ganzfeld (a mild sensory deprivation procedure). These studies have proved to be even more successful than Rhine's forced-choice paradigm, with meta-analyses evidencing reliable effects, and many confirmatory replication studies.[20][21]
Parapsychological investigation of ESP
Main articles: Parapsychology, Scientific investigation of telepathy and Ganzfeld experiment
The study of psi phenomena such as ESP is called parapsychology. The consensus of the Parapsychological Association is that certain types of psychic phenomena such as psychokinesis, telepathy, and astral projection are well established.[4][22][23]
A great deal of reported extrasensory perception is said to occur spontaneously in conditions which are not scientifically controlled. Such experiences have often been reported to be much stronger and more obvious than those observed in laboratory experiments. These reports, rather than laboratory evidence, have historically been the basis for the widespread belief in the authenticity of these phenomena. However, it has proven extremely difficult (perhaps impossible) to replicate such extraordinary experiences under controlled scientific conditions.[4]
Proponents of the ESP phenomenon point to numerous studies that cite evidence of the phenomenon's existence: Russell Targ and Harold E. Puthoff, who were physicists at SRI International in the 1970s, as well as J. B. Rhine at Duke University and many others, are often cited in arguments that ESP exists.
The main current debate concerning ESP surrounds whether or not statistically compelling laboratory evidence for it has already been accumulated.[4][24] The most accepted results are all small to moderate statistically significant results. Critics may dispute the positive interpretation of results obtained in scientific studies of ESP, as they claim they are difficult to reproduce reliably, and are small in effect. Parapsychologists have argued that the data from numerous studies show that certain individuals have consistently produced remarkable results while the remainder have constituted a highly significant trend that cannot be dismissed even if the effect is small.[25]
Skepticism
See also: Parapsychology: Criticism and controversy
Among scientists in the National Academy of Sciences, 96% described themselves as "skeptical" of ESP; 4% believed in psi. Among all scientists surveyed, 10% felt that parapsychological research should be encouraged.[26] The National Academy of Sciences had previously sponsored the Enhancing Human Performance report on mental development programs, which was critical of parapsychology.[27]
Skeptics claim that there is a lack of a viable theory of the mechanism behind ESP, and that there are historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies.[28]
See also
| Part of a series of articles on the paranormal |
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| Main articles |
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| Articles on skepticism |
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| Related articles on science, psychology, and logic |
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| Related articles on Social change and Parapsychology |
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- Astral projection
- Aura
- Clairvoyance
- Clever Hans
- Extrasensory Perception (book)
- International Zetetic Challenge
- Intuition
- Mediumship
- Out-of-body experiences
- Parapsychology
- Parapsychology basic items (list)
- Precognition
- Psychokinesis
- Pyrokinesis
- Religious experience
- Remote viewing
- Retrocognition
- Silva Method
- Spirituality items (list)
- Telepathy
- The Decline Effect
- List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
References
- ^ Gracely, Ph.D., Ed J. (1998). "Why Extraordinary Claims Demand Extraordinary Proof". PhACT. Retrieved 2007-07-31.
- ^ Britannica Online Encyclopedia, Retrieved October 7, 2007.
- ^ "Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology". Parapsychological Association. Retrieved 2006-12-24.
- ^ a b c d The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0
- ^ Robert Todd Carroll. "ESP (extrasensory perception)". Skeptic's Dictionary!. Retrieved 2007-06-23.
- ^ Cordón, Luis A. (2005). Popular psychology: an encyclopedia. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. 182. ISBN 0-313-32457-3.
The essential problem is that a large portion of the scientific community, including most research psychologists, regards parapsychology as a pseudoscience, due largely to its failure to move beyond null results in the way science usually does. Ordinarily, when experimental evidence fails repeatedly to support a hypothesis, that hypothesis is abandoned. Within parapsychology, however, more than a century of experimentation has failed even to conclusively demonstrate the mere existence of paranormal phenomenon, yet parapsychologists continue to pursue that elusive goal.
- ^ National Science Board (2006). "Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". Science and Engineering Indicators 2006. National Science Foundation. Belief in Pseudoscience (see Footnote 29). Retrieved 20 June 2013.
- ^ Vernon, David (1989). (ed.) Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, ed. Skeptical - a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Canberra, Australia: Canberra Skeptics. p. 28. ISBN 0-7316-5794-2.
- ^ Honorton, C. (1975). "Error some place!". Journal of Communication 25 (25): 103–116. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1975.tb00560.x.
- ^ Martin, D.R., & Stribic, F.P. (1938). "Studies in extrasensory perception: I. An analysis of 25, 000 trials". Journal of Parapsychology 2: 23–30.
- ^ Riess, B.F. (1937). "A case of high scores in card guessing at a distance". Journal of Parapsychology 1: 260–263.
- ^ Rhine, J.B. (1966). Foreword. In Pratt, J.G., Rhine, J.B., Smith, B.M., Stuart, C.E., & Greenwood, J.A. (eds.). Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years, 2nd ed. Boston, US: Humphries.
- ^ West, D. J. (1962). Psychical Research Today (2nd rev. ed.). London, UK: Penguin.
- ^ Colborn, M. (2004). "The decline effect in spontaneous and experimental psychical research". Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 71: 1–21.
- ^ Rhine, J. B. (1934). "Extra-sensory perception of the clairvoyant type". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 29 (2): 151–171. doi:10.1037/h0075206.
- ^ Schmeidler, G. R., & Murphy, G. (1946). "The influence of belief and disbelief in ESP upon individual scoring level". Journal of Experimental Psychology 36 (3): 271–276. doi:10.1037/h0054099. PMID 20985363.
- ^ Beloff, J. (1986). "Retrodiction". Parapsychology Review 17 (1): 1–5.
- ^ Lawrence, T. R. (1993). Gathering in the sheep and goats: A meta-analysis of forced-choice sheep-goat ESP studies, 1947-1993. Proceedings of the Parapsychological Association 36th Annual Convention, pp. 75-86
- ^ http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_3_62/ai_54194994 Honorton, C., Ferrari, D. C., & Bem, D. J. (1998). Extra version and ESP performance: A meta-analysis and a new confirmation. Journal of Parapsychology, 62 (3), 255-276.
- ^ Sherwood, S. J. & Roe, C. (2003). "A review of dream ESP studies conducted since the Maimonides studies". Journal of Consciousness Studies 10: 85–109.
- ^ Bem, D. J. et al. (2001). "Updating the Ganzfeld database". Journal of Parapsychology 65: 207–218.
- ^ http://www.aquariusage.com/world-psychology/criticism-controversy-parapsychology/ Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology - An Overview By Eberhard Bauer, Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, in the European Journal of Parapsychology, 1984, 5, 141-166, Retrieved September 18, 2014
- ^ http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file3.html#20 What is the state-of-the-evidence for psi? Retrieved January 31, 2007
- ^ Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality by Dean I. Radin, Simon & Schuster, Paraview Pocket Books, 2006 ISBN 978-1-4165-1677-4
- ^ Psychological Bulletin 1994, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18. Does Psi Exist? Replicable Evidence for an Anomalous Process of Information Transfer By Daryl J. Bem and Charles Honorton
- ^ McConnell, R.A., and Clark, T.K. (1991). "National Academy of Sciences' Opinion on Parapsychology" Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 85, 333-365.
- ^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n3_v56/ai_13771782/pg_5 Retrieved February 4, 2007
- ^ Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). "ESP (extrasensory perception)". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
Further reading
- The Conscious Universe, by Dean Radin, Harper Collins, 1997, ISBN 0-06-251502-0.
- Entangled Minds by Dean Radin, Pocket Books, 2006
- Milbourne Christopher, ESP, Seers & Psychics: What the Occult Really Is, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1970, ISBN 0-690-26815-7
- Milbourne Christopher, Mediums, Mystics & the Occult by Thomas Y. Crowell Co, 1975
- Milbourne Christopher, Search for the Soul, Thomas Y. Crowell Publishers, 1979
- Georges Charpak, Henri Broch, and Bart K. Holland (tr), Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience, (Johns Hopkins University). 2004, ISBN 0-8018-7867-5
- Hoyt L. Edge, Robert L. Morris, Joseph H. Rush, John Palmer, Foundations of Parapsychology: Exploring the Boundaries of Human Capability, Routledge Kegan Paul, 1986, ISBN 0-7102-0226-1
- Paul Kurtz, A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology, Prometheus Books, 1985, ISBN 0-87975-300-5
- Jeffrey Mishlove, Roots of Consciousness: Psychic Liberation Through History Science and Experience. 1st edition, 1975, ISBN 0-394-73115-8, 2nd edition, Marlowe & Co., July 1997, ISBN 1-56924-747-1 There are two very different editions. online
- Schmeidler, G. R. (1945). Separating the sheep from the goats. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 39, 47–49.
- John White, ed. Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science, published by Edgar D. Mitchell and G. P. Putman, 1974, ISBN 0-399-11342-8
- Richard Wiseman, Deception and self-deception: Investigating Psychics. Amherst, USA: Prometheus Press. 1997
- Benjamin B. Wolman, ed, Handbook of Parapsychology, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1977, ISBN 0-442-29576-6
- Wilde, Stuart, Sixth Sense: Including the Secrets of the Etheric Subtle Body, Hay House, 2000. ISBN 978-1-56170-501-6, ISBN 978-1-56170-410-1
- Sixth sense - a spiritual perspective by SSRF http://www.spiritualresearchfoundation.org/articles/id/spiritualresearch/spiritualscience/sixthsense
External links
| Wikiversity has learning materials about What is the sixth sense? |
- Extrasensory perception at DMOZ
- Extrasensory Perception at Video HQ
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English Journal
- Information and uncertainty in remote perception research.
- Dunne BJ, Jahn RG.
- Explore (New York, N.Y.).Explore (NY).2007 May-Jun;3(3):254-69, 343-4.
- This article has four purposes: 1) to present for the first time in archival form all results of some 25 years of remote perception research at this laboratory; 2) to describe all of the analytical scoring methods developed over the course of this program to quantify the amount of anomalous informat
- PMID 17560347
- The percipient observations of Constantin von Economo on encephalitis lethargica and sleep disruption and their lasting impact on contemporary sleep research.
- Triarhou LC1.
- Brain research bulletin.Brain Res Bull.2006 Apr 14;69(3):244-58. Epub 2006 Mar 3.
- The study, and the preceding companion article, reviews the pioneering contributions of Constantin von Economo (1876-1931) to Neuroscience in a modern context. The neurological studies of von Economo include the discovery of a new nosological entity, encephalitis lethargica, with which his name is f
- PMID 16564419
Japanese Journal
- 強化学習ロボットによるアフォーダンスの利用
- 李 銘義,公文 誠,足立 紀彦
- 人工知能学会論文誌 = Transactions of the Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence : AI 16, 94-101, 2001-11-01
- … Conclusion is made in the latter part of the paper that the percipient(robot) should simplify the number of perception in order to get enough valid equivalence relationship which abstracts affordance from environment with in the limit of incomplete perception; …
- NAID 20000414675
- プロテスタントの神秘思想(1) : ヴァイゲルとアルント
- 金子 晴勇,カネコ ハルオ
- 聖学院大学論叢 11(1), 1-23, 1998-09-20
- … He holds that in sense perception the percipient brings forth his real knowledge from within. …
- NAID 110001838582
- 感覚外情報伝達に関する脳波測定実験(そのII)
- 平澤 雅彦,山本 幹雄,河野 貴美子,古川 章,安田 仲宏
- Journal of International Society of Life Information Science 14(2), 185-195, 1996-09-01
- 情報送信者と情報受信者を感覚伝達を遮断した2部屋に配置し、感覚外情報伝達を試み、その時の両者の脳波を測定した。感覚外情報送信は継続した2分間の無作為に選ばれた前半または後半において行い、受信者はその送信時間帯と送信内容を推測する。20回の試行の結果、受信者は送信時間帯は統計的に有意に推測することができなかったが、感覚外情報送信時と非送信時の脳波のα波平均振幅の間には統計的に有意な差がみられ、下意識 …
- NAID 110001091628
Related Links
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