painkiller

PrepTutorEJDIC

通みを和らげるもの(薬),通み止め,鎮痛剤

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2017/05/19 05:09:52」(JST)

wiki ja

この項目では、2004年に発売されたPCゲームの名前について説明しています。その他の用法については「Painkiller (曖昧さ回避)」をご覧ください。

PAINKILLER -HEAVEN'S GOT A HITMAN-は2004年6月11日に発売されたスポーツ系FPSで、開発元はポーランドのPeopleCanFly、発売元はDreamCatcher（日本ではM3エンターテイメント）である。2004年12月1日には拡張パック「Painkiller：Battle Out of Hell」が発売されている。

概要

SinglePlayerではDOOMを彷彿とさせる大量の敵を豊富な弾薬で倒していくという近年のFPSの動向とは逆行する爽快感を求めたゲームスタイルをとっている。大量の敵という点でSerious Samシリーズに似ているが、マップの暗さ、弾薬の多さ、演出のグロテスクさと言った点で異なり、プレイ感覚は殆ど違うと言ってよい。マップや敵のデザインが現代風と中世風の２つに分かれているが、これは販売までの経緯によるものである。 PeopleCanFly社が独自に開発したPainエンジンによるグラフィックは2004年のFPSではトップ5に入るであろう。物理エンジンにHavokを採用しているため敵を吹き飛ばした後の挙動などはリアルで、それにより爽快感が増している。

販売までの経緯

もともとの原案はペインキラーという魔法兵器を装備するウィッチハンターの主人公が、普通の警察・軍隊では解決できない世界各地で起こる異常事件を解決するというダーク・ファンタジーものだった。そのため、マップは太古の遺跡から復活したネクロマンサーによって全滅した町、電波実験中に異世界の扉を開いてしまい魔界の怪物がなだれこんだ冬山、悪魔教団の支配する絶海の孤島、第二次大戦中の死亡兵やテロリストのゾンビたちに制圧された米軍基地など、各マップは現代が舞台である。また、敵キャラクターとして登場するゾンビたちもテロリストや戦時中の兵士、侍や騎士等という、殺人などの罪業で地獄に落ちた亡者などが多い。

しかし、ゲーム部分がほとんど出来上がっていたものの製作途中で資金難から権利を売却することになり、ストーリー部分はほとんど出来上がっていなかったため、買収元のドリームキャッチャー社によってまったく別のストーリーが付与されることになった。交通事故で妻を失ったダニエル…というストーリーがあるが、これはDreamCatcherが販売権を獲得した後つけたされたもの。章ごとに挟まれるムービーもこのときに作成されたものである。このことで、もともとのゲーム進行スタイルの変更を余儀なくされ、マップは統一感がなく、ストーリーとゲームの設定に無理が生じてしまった。

なお、ペインキラースタッフは後に新チームThe Farm 51を立ち上げ、ペインキラーでは果たせなかったウィッチハンターもののストーリーをさらに進めたダークファンタジー「NecroVisioN」を発表している。

ストーリー

嵐の夜、交通事故により、妻と共に命を失ったダニエル・ガーナー。妻は天国へ召されるも、ダニエルは煉獄で留まれてしまう。そんなダニエルの前に現れた天使サマエルは、妻の元へ行きたければ天界支配をもくろむ魔王ルシファーとその配下たちを倒してほしいと提案する。ダニエルはなぜ自分が天国へ行けず、戦いに選ばれたのかという疑問を抱きつつもサマエルの条件を飲み、単身でルシファーの軍団に戦いを挑むのだった。

システム

ゲームの流れ

ゲームは全5チャプターで構成されている。チャプターはそれぞれ幾つかのレベルで構成されており、シークレットレベル等を含め全チャプターで合計24レベル存在する（但し難易度によってレベル数は若干異なり、一つの難易度で全てのレベルはプレイできない）。
殆どのレベルには謎解きや鍵を探すといった要素は一切無く、一定のエリアまで進むと背後の扉が閉まり封鎖され、そのエリア内に次々と出現する敵を全て倒せば次のエリアへの道が開くという流れになっており、ひたすら敵と戦い、道中を進んでいけば良いシンプルなルールになっている。一度クリアしたレベルは何度でもリプレイが可能である。

BLACK TAROT

各レベルにはそれぞれ設定された条件が存在し、それを満たしてクリアすることでプレイヤーに様々な効果をもたらすBLACK TAROTなるタロットカードを入手することができる。BLACK TAROTにはゲームスタート時から永続的に効果を発揮しているタイプと、効果は一定時間のみでゲーム中いつでも任意に発動させるタイプの二種類が存在する。条件はステータス画面で確認することができる。基本的にレベル毎に様々で、ただそのレベルをクリアすれば良いだけのものから、レベル内の敵を全滅させる、特定の武器のみを使用する、といったものや、全てのシークレット（隠されたアイテム）を発見するといった難解なものも存在する。
タロットカードを23枚集め、難易度をNIGHTMARE（ハード）でゲームをクリアすることでTRAUMA（ベリーハード）でのプレイが可能になる。なお、難易度をDAYDREAM（イージー）に設定している場合、条件は存在せず、カード入手も不可である。

登場武器

5種類存在し、各武器にはもう1つのサブウェポンが備わっている。

ペインキラー（PAINKILLER）: 初期から装備している武器。弾薬は消費しないが威力はそれなりに高い。回転刃で敵を切り刻んだり、飛ばす事が可能。サブでは弾頭を発射して敵を攻撃したり、レーザーを放つことが可能。
ショットガン（SHOTGUN / FREEZER）: 散弾銃。威力は高い。サブでは氷の弾を放ち、殆どの敵を一定時間凍らせることが可能。凍らせた敵はどんな攻撃でも一撃で倒せる。
ステイクガン（STAKEGUN / GRENADE-LAUNCHER）: 巨大な杭を発射する。威力は高く、敵を壁に打ち付ける。サブウェポンはグレネードランチャーで、威力の高いグレネードを発射できるが、爆風には注意する必要がある。
ロケットランチャー（ROCKET-LAUNCHER / CHAINGUN）: ロケット弾を発射する。当然威力は高いが、グレネードランチャー同様、爆風には注意する必要がある。サブウェポンはチェーンガンで、強力だが、弾の消費が激しい。
エレクトロドライバー（ELECTRODRIVER）: 手裏剣をマシンガンのように発射する。サブでは電撃を放ち、敵を痺れさせる。

アイテム

ゴールド（GOLD）: 金貨。タロットカード使用に必要。様々なオブジェクトを壊したり、倒した敵の死体にペインキラーのサブ攻撃を連射し当て続けると出現する。
ホーリーアイテム（HOLY ITEM）: 黄金の聖杯。タロットカード使用に必要。1個に付き100ゴールドに相当するが、シークレットで隠されていることが多い。
ソウル（SOUL）: 体力を上昇させるアイテムで、敵を倒すと出現する。2種類存在し、緑色のものは取ると1ポイント、赤色のものは6ポイント体力を上げる。66個集めるとDEMON MORPH MODEに突入し、20秒間無敵になり、高速で移動できる他、敵を一撃で倒すことが可能になる。但しその間は画面が白くなり背景が歪んだようになる（敵のみ赤色で表示される）。なお最高難易度であるTRAUMAでは出現しない。
ヘルス（HEALTH）: 光の玉。取ると25ポイント体力を回復する。赤と緑の色が付いたものは100ポイント回復する。
パワーアップ（WEAPON MODIFIER）: 浮遊する頭蓋骨のようなアイテム。取ると一定時間攻撃力がアップする。登場数は少ない。

主な敵キャラクター

ゾンビ・ウォリアー（ZOMBIE WARRIOR）: アンデッドの騎士。墓や地中から出現する。剣やモーニングスターで攻撃してくる。
ゾンビ・ウォーロード（ZOMBIE WARLORD）: 上位騎士のアンデッド。動きは素早く、盾で殴ってきたり、ゾンビウォリアーの首を刎ね、突進させたりする。
エビル・モンク（EVIL MONK）: 邪悪な修道士。斧を武器とするタイプと、松明を持ち爆弾を投げつけてくるタイプが存在する。
デビル・モンク（DEVIL MONK）: 髑髏のような頭を持つ悪魔の修道士。プレイヤーの動きをスローダウンさせたり、毒ガスを放つハルバードで攻撃してくる。
サイコヌン（PSYCHONUN）: 大鎌を持つ尼僧のモンスター。プレイヤーを一定時間攻撃不能にする魔法を放つ強化タイプも存在する。
ダーク・ニンジャ（DARK NINJA）: アンデッドの忍者。日本語のような奇妙な言葉を喋る。吹き矢を持つタイプと、刀や手裏剣で攻撃してくるタイプが存在する。
エビル・サムライ（EVIL SAMURAI）: アンデッドの侍。二刀流で刀を操り、火炎弾を放つタイプと、両端に氷の刃が付いた薙刀を使い、氷弾を放つタイプが存在する。死に間際に切腹し自爆することもある。
サド・コマンドー（SADO COMMANDO）: レザーマスクにボールギャグを着け、アーマー、マシンピストルを装備した戦闘員。グレネードを投げつけてくることもある。マシンピストルを二丁拳銃で操る強化タイプも存在する。
マゾ・コマンドー（MASO COMMANDO）: レザースーツを身にまとった戦闘員。グレネードランチャーと火炎放射器が1つになった武器を使う。スケルトン・ソルジャーに炎を浴びせ、素早さをアップさせたりもする。
スケルトン・ソルジャー（SKELETON SOLDIER）: ガスマスクを着けたアンデッドの兵士。雄叫びを上げながら銃剣を構えて突撃してくる。ガス弾を投げつけてくることもある。砲台を操作しているものもいる。
ヘル・バイカー（HELL BIKER）: 暴走族のアンデッド。トミーガン、チェーンガンによる攻撃や、突進し頭突きを喰らわせてくる。
ヘル・エンジェル（HELL ANGEL）: 鉄仮面のような頭部を持つパンク風の戦士。ヘル・バイカーと共に登場することが多い。スタンロッドや釘バット、火炎瓶やロケットランチャーなど多彩な武器を使う。
スカル（SKULL）: 髑髏の頭を持つ長身の戦士。トゲ付きのプロテクターや革ジャンを着用し、ショットガンで攻撃してくる。ヘル・バイカーを掴んで盾にする事もある。
ゾンビ（ZOMBIE）: 十字が描かれたぼろ布をまとっており、鎌や松明、肉片を投げてくる。
ボーンズ（BONES）: 小柄な骸骨。素早い動きで接近し噛み付いてくる。また、ソウルを吸収する能力を持ち、離れて戦わないと集めたソウルを吸い取られてしまう。
ビースト（BEAST）: 鎧を着た犬のような魔獣。飛び掛ってきたり、炎をまとい回転しながら体当たりしてくる。
テンペラー・ナイト（TEMPLAR KNIGHT）: 十字軍の騎士（テンプル騎士団）のアンデッド。巨大な盾を持ち、クロスボウで攻撃してくる。
エクゼキューショナー（EXECUTIONER）: 死刑執行人のモンスター。巨体で、両手の巨大な斧で攻撃してくる。プレイヤーを引き寄せる飛び道具を放つ強化タイプも存在する。
ネクロジャイアント（NECROGIANT）: チャプター1ボス。アンデッドの巨人。非常に巨大で、腕を振るい攻撃してくる。
スワンプ・シング（SWAMP THING）: チャプター2ボス。液状のボディを持つ化け物。沼地を伝い腕を伸ばして叩きつけてきたり、エネルギー弾を投げつけて攻撃してくる。
ガーディアン（GUARDIAN）: チャプター3ボス。巨大なウォーハンマーが武器の魔神。

移植

Painkiller Hell Wars: 2006年にXboxで発売（日本国内では未発売）。この作品は拡張パック「Painkiller：Battle Out of Hell」の要素を若干加えているものの、オリジナル版にはあった幾つかのマップやモンスターなどが削られてしまっている等、完全移植には至っていない。また、武器の性能が一部異なる、一部のレベルのタロットカード獲得条件がオリジナル版よりも易しくなっている等、変更点もある。

External links

Official websites

http://www.painkillergame.com/ — PainKiller video game series official website
http://www.projectoverdose.com/ — PainKiller: Overdose video game official website (not updated)
http://www.peoplecanfly.com/ — People Can Fly official website (not updated)
http://www.mindwarestudios.com/ — Mindware official website (not updated)
http://www.dreamcatchergames.com/ — DreamCatcher official website

Unofficial websites

http://www.pkzone.org/ — PainKiller video game series unofficial website

Related websites

http://pkcheats.googlecode.com/ — PainKiller Advanced Cheats official page on Google Code

この項目は、コンピュータゲームに関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（ポータルコンピュータゲーム / ウィキプロジェクトコンピュータゲーム）。

wiki en

[Wiki en表示]

Opium poppies such as this one provide ingredients for the class of analgesics called opiates

An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain.

Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems. They are distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate, sensation. Analgesics include paracetamol (known in North America as acetaminophen or simply APAP), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid drugs such as morphine and oxycodone.

When choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; the World Health Organization (WHO) pain ladder^[1] specifies mild analgesics as its first step.

Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: For neuropathic pain, traditional analgesics are less effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants.^[2]

1 Uses
2 Contraindications
3 Classification
- 3.1 Paracetamol/acetaminophen
- 3.2 NSAIDs
- 3.3 COX-2 inhibitors
- 3.4 Opioids
- 3.5 Alcohol
- 3.6 Medical cannabis
- 3.7 Combinations
- 3.8 Alternative medicine
- 3.9 Psychotropic agents
- 3.10 Other drugs
- 3.11 Other classification systems
4 List of drugs with comparison
5 Etymology
6 Research
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References

Uses

Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provided pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions.^[3]

Contraindications

Each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects.

Classification

Tilidine, a type of painkiller

Drugs for pain are typically classified by chemical structure.^{[citation needed]}

They may also be classified in other ways. Sometimes they are classified by use for various classes of medical condition.^{[citation needed]} Other times they are sorted by the needs of special populations who would use them.^{[citation needed]} They might be listed by availability in a geographical area, perhaps to prevent recommending a drug which is illegal in one place even if it is easily available elsewhere.^{[citation needed]}

Paracetamol/acetaminophen

Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medication used to treat pain and fever.^[4] It is typically used for mild to moderate pain.^[4] In combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery.^[5] It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously.^[4]^[6] Effects last between two and four hours.^[6] Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic.^[6] Paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses.^[7]

NSAIDs

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (usually abbreviated to NSAIDs), are a drug class that groups together drugs that provide analgesic (pain-killing) and antipyretic (fever-reducing) effects, and, in higher efficacies, anti-inflammatory effects. The most prominent members of this group of drugs, aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, are all available over the counter in most countries.^[8]

COX-2 inhibitors

These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (such as rofecoxib, celecoxib, and etoricoxib) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular.^[9]

After widespread adoption of the COX-2 inhibitors, it was discovered that most of the drugs in this class increase the risk of cardiovascular events by 40% on average. This led to the withdrawal of rofecoxib and valdecoxib, and warnings on others. Etoricoxib seems relatively safe, with the risk of thrombotic events similar to that of non-coxib NSAID diclofenac.^[9]

Opioids

Morphine, the archetypal opioid, and other opioids (e.g., codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydromorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor system. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist of the μ-opioid receptor, and tramadol is a serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) with weak μ-opioid receptor agonist properties.^[10] Tramadol is structurally closer to venlafaxine than to codeine and delivers analgesia by not only delivering "opioid-like" effects (through mild agonism of the mu receptor) but also by acting as a weak but fast-acting serotonin releasing agent and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14] Tapentadol, with some structural similarities to tramadol, presents what is believed to be a novel drug working through two (and possibly three) different modes of action in the fashion of both a traditional opioid and as a SNRI. The effects of serotonin and norepinephrine on pain, while not completely understood, have had causal links established and drugs in the SNRI class are commonly used in conjunction with opioids (especially tapentadol and tramadol) with greater success in pain relief. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol), but opioid-tolerant individuals usually have higher dose ceilings than patients without tolerance.^{[citation needed]}

Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting (generally relieved by a short course of antiemetics such as phenergan). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives (lactulose, macrogol-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.^[15]

When used appropriately, opioids and other central analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and the body's becoming used to the drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent use of the drug may result in its diminished effect so, when safe to do so, the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness. This may be of particular concern regarding patients suffering with chronic pain.^{[citation needed]} Opioid tolerance is often addressed with "opioid rotation therapy" in which a patient is routinely switched between two or more non-cross-tolerant opioid medications in order to prevent exceeding safe dosages in the attempt to achieve an adequate analgesic effect.

Alcohol

Describing the effects of using alcohol to treat pain is difficult.^[16] Alcohol has biological, mental, and social effects which influence the consequences of using alcohol for pain.^[16] Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances.^[16] Attempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder.^[16]

Medical cannabis

Medical cannabis or medical marijuana, can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms.^[17]^[18] There is evidence suggesting that cannabis can be used to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms; with some trials indicating improved relief of neuropathic pain over opioids.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Combinations

Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for allergy sufferers.

While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action,^[22] several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion that arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.^[23]

Alternative medicine

Many people use alternative medicine treatments including drugs for pain relief.^[24] There is some evidence that some treatments using alternative medicine can relieve some types of pain more effectively than placebo.^[25] The available research concludes that more research would be necessary to better understand the use of alternative medicine.^[25]

Psychotropic agents

Other psychotropic analgesic agents include ketamine (an NMDA receptor antagonist), clonidine and other α₂-adrenoreceptor agonists, and mexiletine and other local anaesthetic analogues.

Other drugs

Drugs that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer anti-depressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.

Adjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include nefopam, orphenadrine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, scopolamine, and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin.

Dextromethorphan has been noted to slow the development of tolerance to opioids and exert additional analgesia by acting upon the NMDA receptors;^{[citation needed]} some analgesics such as methadone and ketobemidone and perhaps piritramide have intrinsic NMDA action.^[26]

High-alcohol liquor, two forms of which were found in the US Pharmacopoeia up until 1916 and in common use by physicians well into the 1930s, has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS depressant effects of ethyl alcohol, a notable example being the American Civil War.^{[citation needed]} However, the ability of alcohol to relieve severe pain is likely inferior to many analgesics used today (e.g., morphine, codeine). As such, in general, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is considered a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today.

The use of adjuvant analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these drugs combat the side-effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus. For example, antihistamines including orphenadrine combat the release of histamine caused by many opioids. Stimulants such as methylphenidate, caffeine, ephedrine, dextroamphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants.^{[citation needed]} The use of medicinal cannabis remains a debated issue.

In patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. Tricyclic antidepressants, especially clomipramine and amitriptyline, have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner.^{[citation needed]} Nefopam is used in Europe for pain relief with concurrent opioids. The exact mechanism of carbamazepine, gabapentin, and pregabalin is similarly unclear, but these anticonvulsants are used to treat neuropathic pain with differing degrees of success. Anticonvulsants are most commonly used for neuropathic pain as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation.^[27]

Flupirtine is a centrally acting K+ channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties.^[28] It is used in Europe for moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle-relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic properties and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin, or histamine receptors. It is not addictive, and tolerance usually does not develop.^[29] However, tolerance may develop in single cases.^[30]

Other classification systems

Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen- or diclofenac-containing gel (The labeling for topical diclofenac has been updated to warn about drug-induced hepatotoxicity.^[31]); capsaicin also is used topically. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. In February 2007 the FDA notified consumers and healthcare professionals of the potential hazards of topical anesthetics entering the blood stream when applied in large doses to the skin without medical supervision. These topical anesthetics contain anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, and prilocaine in a cream, ointment, or gel.^[32]

List of drugs with comparison

Comparison of different analgesics
Generic name (INN)	Physicochemistry^[33]	Mechanism of action^[34]	Routes of administration ^[34]^[35]^[36]	Pharmacokinetics^[33]	Indications ^[34]^[35]^[36]	Major safety concerns ^[34]^[35]^[36]
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents
Unselective agents
Aceclofenac	Comes in betadex salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in many organic solvents; degrades on contact with light; phenylacetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 4 hours; metabolised to diclofenac (minor); excretion = urine (67%).	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Acemetacin	Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in certain organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. Chemically related to indometacin	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Slightly metabolised to indometacin.	Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and lower back pain.	As per diclofenac.
Amfenac	No available data.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	No data.	Pain and inflammation.	As diclofenac.
Aminophenazone	Related to phenylbutazone.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal and joint disorders.	Agranulocytosis and cancer.
Ampiroxicam	Related to piroxicam.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	No data.	Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.	Photosensitivity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs.
Amtolmetin guacil	Prodrug to tolmetin.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	No data.	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Aspirin	Comes in free form, aluminium and lysine salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 300); highly soluble (1 in 5) in alcohol; degrades on contact with air. Salicylate.	Irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2; hence inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis.	PO, IM, IV, rectal	Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding = 25–95% (inversely dependent on plasma concentration); half life = 2–3 hours, 15–30 hours (higher doses); excretion = 80–100%.^[37]	Blood thining; mild-to-moderate pain; fever; rheumatic fever; migraine; rheumatoid arthritis; Kawasaki's disease	GI bleeds; ulcers; Reye syndrome; nephrotoxicity; blood dyscrasias (rarely); Stevens-Johnson syndrome (uncommon/rare)
Azapropazone	Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform, soluble in ethanol; phenylbutazone.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal.	No data available.	Rheumatoid arthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis.	As per diclofenac.
Bendazac	Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. Chemically related to indometacin.	As per acetametacin.	Topical, ophthalmologic.	N/A	Skin conditions (such as contact dermatitis) and cataracts.	Hepatotoxicity reported.
Benorilate	Aspirin-paracetamol ester. Practically insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in ethanol and methanol, soluble in acetone and chloroform.	As per aspirin and paracetamol.	PO.	Unavailable.	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft-tissue rheumatism; mild-moderate pain and fever.	As per aspirin and paracetamol.
Benzydamine	Comes in free acid form; freely soluble in water.	As per diclofenac.	Topical, PO, rectal, spray and vaginal.	No data available.	Musculoskeletal disorders; soft-tissue disorders; sore throat.	As per diclofenac.
Bromfenac	Comes in free acid form; phenylacetic acid derivative.	Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor.	Ophthalmologic.	N/A	Postoperative pain and inflammation.	Corneal ulceration.
Bufexamac	Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in a few organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light.	Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition.	Topical.	No data.	Skin disorders.	Skin conditions, such as contact dermatitis.
Carbasalate	Comes in calcium salt form; fairly soluble in water.	Is metabolised to aspirin and urea. As per aspirin.	Oral.	No data.	Used for thromboembolic disorders.	As per diclofenac.
Clonixin	Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms.	Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition.	PO, IM, IV, rectal.	No data.	Pain.	As per diclofenac.
Dexibuprofen	D-isomer of ibuprofen. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = ?; protein binding = 99%; metabolism = hepatic via carboxylation and hydroxylation; half-life = 1.8–3.5 hours; excretion = Urine (90%).^[38]	Osteoarthritis; mild-moderate pain and menstrual pain.^[39]	As per diclofenac.
Diclofenac	Comes in sodium, potassium and diethylamine (topically used as a gel) salt forms; sparingly soluble in water but soluble in ethanol. Unstable in the presence of light and air. Indole acetic acid derivative.	Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor.	PO and topical.	Bioavailability = 50–60%; protein binding = 99–99.8%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1.2–2 hours; excretion = urine (50–70%), faeces (30–35%)	Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; inflammatory pain (e.g. period pain); local pain/inflammation (as a gel); actinic keratoses; heavy menstrual bleeding	As per aspirin, except without Reye syndrome and with the following additions: myocardial infarctions, strokes and hypertension. More prone to causing these AEs compared to the other non-selective NSAIDs.^[40]
Diethylamine salicylate	Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with light and iron.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	N/A.	Rheumatic and musculoskeletal pain.	As per bufexamac.
Diflunisal	Comes in free acid and arginine salt forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with light.	As per diclofenac.	PO, IM, IV.	Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.11 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 8–12 hours; excretion = urine (90%), faeces (<5%).^[33]^[41]	Pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Epirizole	Comes in free form.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Not available.	Rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Ethenzamide	Comes in free form; salicylate.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal pain; fever.	As per diclofenac.
Etofenamate	Liquid; practically insoluble in water, miscible with ethyl acetate and methanol.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal, joint and soft-tissue disorders.	As per bufexamac.
Felbinac	Comes in free and diisopropanolamine salt forms; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in methanol.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	N/A	Musculoskeletal pain and soft tissue injuries.	As per bufexamac.
Fenbufen	Comes as free acid; fairly insoluble in most solvents (including water); propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 10–17 hours.	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Fenoprofen	Comes in calcium salt; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform and fairly soluble in alcohol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = ?; protein binding = 99%; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine, faeces.^[42]	Pain; rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Fentiazac	Comes in free form and calcium salt; acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	No data.	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Fepradinol	Comes in free acid and hydrochloride salt forms.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	N/A	Local inflammatory response.	As per bufexamac.
Feprazone	Comes in free acid and piperazine salt forms. Phenylbutazone.	As per diclofenac.	PO, Rectal, topical.	Not available.	As per diclofenac.	As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).
Floctafenine	Comes in free acid form; anthranilic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	Oral.	Extensively metabolised by the liver; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urinary and biliary.	Short-term relief from pain.	As per diclofenac.
Flufenamic acid	Comes in free acid form and aluminium salt form; anthranilic acid.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	N/A	Soft tissue inflammation and pain.	As per bufexamac.
Flurbiprofen	Comes in sodium salt and free acid forms; fairly insoluble in water but soluble in ethanol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, IM, IV, ophthalmologic.	Bioavailability = 96% (oral); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.12 L/kg; excretion = urine (70%).^[43]	Ophthalmologic: Vernal keratoconjunctivitis; postoperative ocular swelling; herpetic stromal keratitis, excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy; ocular gingivitis. Systemic use: rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis.^[43]	As per bromfenac (ophthalmologic) and diclofenac (PO/IM/IV).
Glucametacin	Indometacin derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal, joint, peri-articular and soft-tissue disorders.	As per diclofenac.
Ibuprofen	Comes in lysine salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, but soluble in ethanol, acetone, methanol, dichloromethane and chloroform. Degrades in the presence of air. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, IV, topical	Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding = 90–99%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9 and CYP2C19-mediated oxidation; excretion = Urine (50–60%), faeces.^[44]	Pain; fever; inflammatory illness; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; heavy menstrual bleeding; patent ductus arteriosus.^[35]^[45]^[46]	As per diclofenac, except with lower risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and hypertension.
Imidazole salicylate	Comes in free form. Salicylate.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal, topical.	Not available.	Muscular and rheumatic pain.	As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).
Indometacin	Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and most solvents; sensitive to degradation by light. Acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, IV, rectal	Bioavailability = 100% (oral); protein binding = 90%; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (60%), faeces (33%).^[47]	Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; period pain; patent ductus arteriosus.^[35]	As per diclofenac.
Isonixin	Comes in free form.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal and topical.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal and joint disorders.	As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).
Kebuzone	Comes in free and sodium salt form; phenylbutazone derivative.	As per diclofenac.	IM, PO.	Not available.	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Ketoprofen	Comes in free acid, lysine salt, sodium salt and hydrochloride salt forms; the dex-enantiomer comes in trometamol salt form. Practically insoluble in water; freely soluble in most other solvents. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal, topical, transdermal, intravenous, intramuscular.^[48]^[49]	Bioavailability > 92% (oral), 70–90% (rectal); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1.5–2 hours (oral), 2.2 hours (rectal), 2 hours (intravenous).^[50]^[51]	Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and superficial sporting injuries (topical use).^[35]^[52]	As per diclofenac.
Ketorolac	Comes in the trometamol salt form; highly soluble in water. Degrades in the presence of light. Acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, IM, IV, intranasal, tromethamine and ophthalmologic.	Bioavailability of IM formulation = 100%; protein binding = 99%; hepatic metabolism mostly via glucoronic acid conjugation and p-hydroxylation; half-life = 5–6 hours; excretion = urine (91.4%), faeces (6.1%).^[53]	Mild-moderate postoperative pain; acute migraine; inflammation of the eye due to cataract surgery or allergic seasonal conjunctivitis; prevention of acute pseudophakic cystoid macular oedema.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60]	As per diclofenac.
Lornoxicam	Hydrochloride salt form used; oxicam derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding = 99%; volume of distribution = 0.2 L/kg; half-life = 3–5 hours; excretion = faeces (51%), urine (42%).^[61]^[62]	Acute and chronic pain.	As per diclofenac.
Loxoprofen	Comes in sodium salt form. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	N/A	Local inflammation and pain.	As per diclofenac.
Magnesium salicylate	Comes in free form; soluble in water and ethanol; salicylate.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Not available.	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Meclofenamic acid	Comes in free acid and sodium salt form, sodium salt is the form used in human medicine; practically insoluble in water (free acid) and freely soluble in water (sodium salt); sensitive to degradation by air and light.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 2–4 hours; hepatically metabolised via oxidation, hydroxylation, dehalogenation and conjugation with glucuronic acid; excretion = urine, faeces (20–30%).^[33]	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; mild-moderate pain; dysmenorrhoea; menorrhagia.	As per diclofenac.
Mefenamic acid	Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades on contact with air and light. Anthranilic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding extensive; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine (66%), faeces (20–25%).^[63]	Inflammatory pain and heavy menstrual bleeding.^[35]	As per diclofenac.
Mofezolac	Comes in free form.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal and joint pain.	As per diclofenac.
Morniflumate	Comes in free acid form; niflumic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal.	Not available.	Inflammatory conditions.	As per diclofenac.
Nabumetone	Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone; degrades on contact with air and light.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding = 99%; hepatically metabolised; half-life = 24 hours; excretion = urine (80%), faeces (9%).^[64]	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Naproxen	Comes in free acid and sodium form; practically insoluble in water in free form, freely soluble in water (sodium salt), fairly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades on contact with air and light. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99.5%; volume of distribution = 10% of bodyweight; half-life = 12–15 hours; excretion = urine (95%), faeces (<3%).^[65]	Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; juvenile idiopathic arthritis; inflammatory pain; heavy menstrual bleeding.	As per diclofenac. less prone to causing thrombotic events compared to other non-selective NSAIDs.^[40]
Nepafenac	Comes in free form; related to amfenac.	As per diclofenac.	Ophthalmologic.	Unavailable.	Inflammation and pain following cataract surgery.	As per bromfenac.
Niflumic acid	Comes in free acid form, glycinamide and ethyl ester form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, acetone and methanol. Nicotinic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal (ethyl ester, morniflumate).	Unavailable.	Musculoskeletal, joint and mouth inflammatory disorders.	As per diclofenac.
Oxaprozin	Comes in potassium and free acid forms; degrades upon contact with light. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99.5%; volume of distribution = 0.15–0.25 L/kg; half-life = 50–60 hours; excretion = urine (65), faeces (35%).^[66]^[67]	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Oxyphenbutazone	Comes in free form. Phenylbutazone.	As per diclofenac.	PO, Ophthalmologic.	Unavailable.	Ophthalmologic: Episcleritis. Systemic (now seldom used due to adverse effects): ankylosing spondylitis; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis.	As per bromfenac. For systemic use haematological side effects such as aplastic anaemia; agranulocytosis; leucopenia; neutropenia; etc.
Phenazone	No data.	As per diclofenac.	PO, otolaryngologic.	Protein binding < 10%; half-life = 12 hours; hepatic metabolised; excretion = urine (primary), faeces.	Acute otitis media.	Nephrotoxicity and haematologic toxicity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs.
Phenylbutazone	Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light and air.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal, topical.	No data available.	Ankylosing spondylitis; acute gout; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	Haematologic toxicity (including agranulocytosis, aplastic anaemia) and AEs typical of NSAIDs.
Piketoprofen	Comes in free form.	As per diclofenac.	Topical.	N/A.	Musculoskeletal, joint, peri-articular and soft-tissue disorders.	As per other topical NSAIDs.
Piroxicam	Comes in free acid and betadex salt forms; practically insoluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol; degrades on contact with air and light. Enolic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, topical.	Protein binding = 99%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life = 36–45 hours; excretion = urine, faeces.^[68]^[69]	Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and sports injuries (topical use).^[35]	As per diclofenac.
Proglumetacin	Comes in maleate salt form; indometacin derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal, topical.	Not available.	Musculoskeletal and joint disorders.	As per diclofenac.
Proquazone	Comes in free form.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal.	Not available.	As per diclofenac.	As per diclofenac.
Pranoprofen	No data.	As per diclofenac.	PO, ophthalmologic.	Not available.	Pain, inflammation and fever.	As per diclofenac.
Salamidacetic acid	Comes in sodium and diethylamine salt forms; salicylate.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Unavailable.	Musculoskeletal disorders.	As per diclofenac.
Salicylamide	Fairly insoluble in water and chloroform; soluble in most other organic solvents; salicylate.	As per diclofenac.	PO, topical.	No data.	Muscular and rheumatic diseases.	As per diclofenac.
Salol	No data.	As per diclofenac.	PO, topical.	No data.	Lower urinary tract infections.	As per diclofenac.
Salsalate	Degrades upon contact with air; salicylate derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Hepatic metabolism; half-life = 7–8 hours; excretion = urine.^[70]	Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Sodium salicylate	Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with air and light; salicylate.	As per diclofenac.	PO, IV, topical.	No data.	Pain, fever and rheumatic conditions.	Cardiac problems; otherwise As per diclofenac.
Sulindac	Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and hexane, very slightly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades upon contact with light. Acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal.	Bioavailability = 90%; protein binding = 93% (sulindac), 98% (active metabolite); hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (50%), faeces (25%).^[71]	Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; inflammatory pain.^[35]	As per diclofenac.
Suxibuzone	Practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol and acetone; phenylbutazone.	As per diclofenac.	PO, topical.	No data.	Musculoskeletal and joint disorders.	As per phenylbutazone.
Tenoxicam	Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal.	Bioavailability = 100% (oral), 80% (rectal); protein binding = 99%; volume of distribution = 0.15 L/kg; half-life = 60–75 hours; excretion = urine (67%), faeces (33%).^[72]	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft tissue injury.	As per diclofenac.
Tetridamine	No data.	As per diclofenac.	Vaginal.	No data.	Vaginitis.	As per diclofenac.
Tiaprofenic acid	Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water but freely soluble in most organic solvents; propionic acid derivative; degrades upon contact with light. Propionic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2–4 hours.^[73]	Ankylosing spondylitis; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; fibrosis; capsulitis; soft-tissue disorders.	As per diclofenac.
Tiaramide	No data.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	No data.	Pain; inflammation.	As per diclofenac.
Tinoridine	No data.	As per diclofenac.	No data.	No data.	Pain; inflammation.	As per diclofenac.
Tolfenamic acid	Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water; degrades upon contact with light; anthranilic acid.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding = 99%; half-life = 2 hours; hepatically metabolised; excretion = urine (90%), faeces.	Migraine; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; dysmenorrhoea.	As per diclofenac.
Tolmetin	Comes in sodium salt form; freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, freely soluble in methanol. Acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 7–10 L; half-life = 1 hour; excretion = urine (90%).^[74]	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Ufenamate	No data.	No data.	Topical.	No data.	Inflammatory skin disorders.	As per other topical NSAIDs.
COX-2 selective inhibitors
Celecoxib	Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, fairly soluble in organic solvents. Degrades on contact with light and moisture. Sulfonamide.	Selective COX-2 inhibitor.	PO.	Protein binding = 97%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; faeces (57%), urine (27%).^[75]	Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; pain due to dysmenorrhoea or injury.	As per non-selective NSAIDs. More prone to causing thrombotic events than most of them, however, except diclofenac.
Etodolac	Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone and dehydrated alcohol. Acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.41 L/kg; half-life = 6–7 hours; excretion = urine (73%).^[76]^[77]^[78]	Rheumatoid arthritis, including juvenile idiopathic arthritis; osteoarthritis; acute pain.	As per diclofenac.
Etoricoxib	Comes in free form; sulfonamide.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = 100%; protein binding = 91.4%; volume of distribution = 120 L; half-life = 22 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (70%), faeces (20%).^[79]	Acute pain; gout; osteoarthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Lumiracoxib†	Comes in free form; acetic acid derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = 74%; protein binding > 98%; extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life = 3–6 hours; excretion = Urine (50%), faeces (50%).^[80]	Osteoarthritis.	As above, plus hepatotoxicity.
Meloxicam	Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and in most organic solvents; oxicam derivative.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal.	Bioavailability = 89%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; half-life = 22–24 hours; extensive hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (45%), faeces (47%).^[81]	Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Nimesulide	Comes in free and betadex form; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in acetone.	As per diclofenac.	PO, rectal, topical.	Unavailable.	Acute pain; dysmenorrhoea; sprains (topical); tendinitis.	As per diclofenac.
Parecoxib	Comes in sodium salt form; sulfonamide.	As per diclofenac.	IM, IV.	Plasma binding = 98%; volume of distribution = 55 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP3A4; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urine (70%).^[82]	Postoperative pain.	As per diclofenac.
Rofecoxib†	Comes in free form; sulfonamide.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = 93%; protein binding = 87%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 17 hours.^[83]^[84]	Acute pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis.	As per diclofenac.
Valdecoxib†	Comes in free form; sulfonamide.	As per diclofenac.	PO.	Bioavailability = 83%; protein binding = 98%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4 and CYP2C9; half-life = 8.11 hours; excretion = urine (90%).^[85]	Pain from dysmenorrhoea; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis.	As above and also potentially fatal skin reactions (e.g. toxic epidermal necrolysis).
Opioids
Those with a morphine skeleton
Buprenorphine	Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, methanol and acetone; degrades upon contact with light.	Partial agonist at the mu opioid receptor; agonist at delta opioid receptor; antagonist at kappa opioid receptor.	Sublingual, transdermal, IM, IV, intranasal, epidural, SC.	Bioavailability = 79% (sublingual); protein binding = 96%: volume of distribution = 97–187 L/kg; half-life = 20–36 hours; excretion = urine, faeces.^[86]	Opioid dependence, moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine, respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect.
Codeine	Comes in free form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and phosphate salts; soluble in boiling water (free form), freely soluble in ethanol (free form), soluble/freely soluble in water (salt forms); sensitive to degradation by light. Methoxy analogue of morphine.	Metabolised to morphine, which activates the opioid receptors.	PO, IM, IV.	Extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2D6, to morphine; half-life = 3–4 hours; excretion = urine (86%).^[87]	Mild-moderate pain, often in combination with paracetamol or ibuprofen.	Constipation, dependence, sedation, itching, nausea, vomiting and respiratory depression.
Diamorphine	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. Diacetyl derivative of morphine.	Rapidly hydrolysed to 6-acetylmorphine and then to morphine after crossing the blood-brain barrier which in turn activates the opioid receptors in the CNS.	IM, intrathecal, intranasal, PO, IV, SC.	Extensively metabolised to morphine with 6-acetylmorphine as a possible intermediate. Mostly excreted in urine.	Severe pain (including labour pain); cough due to terminal lung cancer; angina; left ventricular failure.	As per codeine. Higher potential for abuse compared to other opioids due to its rapid penetration of the blood-brain barrier.
Dihydrocodeine	Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, phosphate, polistirex, thiocyanate, tartrate, bitartrate and hydrogen tartrate salt forms; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in organic solvents (hydrogen tartrate salt); degrades upon contact with air and light.	Opioid receptor agonist.	IM, IV, PO, SC.	Bioavailability = 20%; extensive hepatic metabolism, partly via CYP2D6 to dihydromorphine and CYP3A4 to nordihydrocodeine; half-life = 3.5 –5 hours; excretion = urine.	Moderate-severe pain; usually in combination with paracetamol and/or aspirin.	As per codeine.
Ethylmorphine	Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, camphorate and camsilate salt forms; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light.	Opioid receptor ligand.	PO.	No data.	Cough suppressant.	As per codeine.
Hydrocodone	Comes in hydrochloride/tartrate salt form; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light/air.	Opioid receptor ligand.	PO.	Protein binding = 19%; extensively hepatically metabolised, mostly via CYP3A4, but via CYP2D6 to a lesser extent to hydromorphone; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urine.^[88]	Chronic pain.	As per codeine.
Hydromorphone	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light or temperatures outside 15 °C and 35 °C.	Opioid receptor agonist.	IM, IV, PO, SC.	Bioavailability = 50–62% (oral); protein binding = 8–19%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life = 2–3 hours; excretion = urine.^[89]	Moderate-severe pain; cough.	As per codeine.
Morphine	Comes in freebase form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and tartrate salt forms; soluble in water; degrades in the presence of light.	Opioid receptor agonist (μ, δ, κ).	IM, intrathecal, PO, IV, SC, rectal.	Protein binding = 35%; extensive hepatic metabolism, with some metabolism occur in the gut after oral administration; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine (90%).	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Nicomorphine	Dinicotinic acid ester derivative of morphine.	As per morphine.	IM, IV, PO, rectal, SC.	No available data.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Oxycodone	Comes in freebase, hydrochloride and terephthalate salt forms; freely soluble in water and practically insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air.	Opioid receptor agonist.	PO.	Bioavailability = 60–87%; protein binding = 45%; volume of distribution = 2.6 L/kg; extensively metabolised in the liver via CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent via CYP2D6 to oxymorphone; half-life = 2–4 hours; excretion = urine (83%).^[90]	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Oxymorphone	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; fairly soluble in water (1 in 4), practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air, light and temperatures outside 15 °C to 30 °C.	As per morphine.	PO, IM, SC.	Bioavailability = 10% (oral); protein binding = 10–12%; volume of distribution = 1.94–4.22 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 7–9 hours, 9–11 hours (XR); excretion = urine, faeces.^[91]	Postoperative analgesia/anaesthesia; moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Morphinans
Butorphanol	Comes in tartrate salt form; sparingly soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air and at temperatures outside the range of 15 °C and 30 °C.	Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor partial agonist.	IM, IV, intranasal.	Bioavailability = 60–70% (intranasal); protein binding = 80%; volume of distribution = 487 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via hydroxylation; excretion = urine (mostly); half-life = 4.6 hours.^[92]	Moderate-severe pain, including labour pain.	As above, but with a higher propensity for causing hallucinations and delusions. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect.
Levorphanol	Comes in tartrate salt form; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 50) and fairly insoluble in ethanol, chloroform and ether; unstable outside of 15 °C and 30 °C; phenanthrene derivative.	Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist; SNRI.^[93]	PO, IM, IV, SC.	Protein binding = 40%; extensive first-pass metabolism; half-life = 12–16 hours, 30 hours (repeated dosing).^[93]^[94]	Acute/chronic pain.	As per codeine.
Nalbuphine	Comes primarily as its hydrochloride salt.	Full agonist at kappa opioid receptors, partial agonist/antagonist at the mu opioid receptors.^[33]	IM, IV, SC.	Protein binding = not significant; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 5 hours; excretion = urine, faeces.^[95]^[96]	Pain; anaesthesia supplement; opioid-induced pruritus.	As per codeine. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect.
Benzomorphans
Dezocine	No data available.	Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist.	IM, IV.	Volume of distribution = 9–12 L/kg; half-life = 2.2–2.7 hours.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Eptazocine	Comes as hydrobromide salt.	As per morphine.	IM, SC.	No data.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Pentazocine	Comes in free, hydrochloride and lactate salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1:30 or less), more soluble in ethanol and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light.	Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor antagonist/partial agonist.	IM, IV, SC.	Bioavailability = 60–70%; protein binding = 60%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2–3 hours; excretion = urine (primary), faeces.^[97]^[98]	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine. Respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect.
Phenylpiperidines
Anileridine	Comes in free, hydrochloride and phosphate forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, ether and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light.	Mu opioid receptor agonist.	IM, IV.	No data.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per codeine.
Ketobemidone	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in ethanol and fairly insoluble in dichloromethane.	Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist.	PO, IM, IV, rectal.	Bioavailability = 34% (oral), 44% (rectal); half-life = 2–3.5 hours.^[99]	Moderate-severe pain.	As per other opioids.
Pethidine	Comes in hydrochloride form; very soluble in water, sparingly soluble in ether, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light.	Mu opioid receptor agonist with some serotonergic effects.	IM, IV, PO, SC.	Bioavailability = 50–60%; protein binding = 65–75%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2.5–4 hours; excretion = urine (primarily).^[100]^[101]^[102]^[103]^[104]	Moderate-severe pain.	As per other opioids; and seizures, anxiety, mood changes and serotonin syndrome.
Open-chain opioids
Dextromoramide	Comes in tartrate salt and free forms; soluble in water (tartrate salt).	IM, IV, PO, rectal.	No data available.	Severe pain.	As per other opioids.	As per other opioids.
Dextropropoxyphene	Comes in free form, hydrochloride and napsilate salt forms; very soluble in water (HCl), practically insoluble in water (napsilate); degrades upon contact with light and air.	Mu opioid.	PO.	Protein binding = 80%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6–12 hours, 30–36 hours (active metabolite).	Mild-moderate pain.	As per other opioids, plus ECG changes.
Dipipanone	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; practically insoluble in water and ether, soluble in acetone and ethanol.	Mu opioid.	PO, often in combination with cyclizine.	Half-life = 20 hours.^[105]	Moderate-severe pain.	Less sedating than morphine, otherwise as per morphine.
Levacetylmethadol†	Comes in hydrochloride salt form.	As above plus nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist.	PO.	Protein binding = 80%; half-life = 2.6 days.	Opioid dependence.	As per other opioids, plus ventricular rhythm disorders.
Levomethadone	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light.	Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist.	PO.	No data.	As per methadone.	As per methadone.
Meptazinol	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol, fairly insoluble in acetone; unstable at temperatures greater than 25 °C.	Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist, partial agonist at mu-1 receptor; cholinergic actions exist.	IM, IV, PO.	Bioavailability = 8.69% (oral); protein binding = 27.1%; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine.^[106]	Moderate-severe pain; perioperative analgesia; renal colic.	As per pentazocine.
Methadone	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light and outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C.	Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist.	IM, IV, PO, SC.	Bioavailability = 36–100% (mean: 70–80%); protein binding = 81–97% (mean: 87%); volume of distribution = 1.9-8 L/kg (mean: 4 L/kg); hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4, CYP2B6 and to a lesser extent: CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 & CYP2C8; half-life = 5–130 hours (mean: 20–35 hours); excretion = urine (20–50%), faeces.^[107]	Opioid addiction; chronic pain.	As per other opioids, plus QT interval prolongation.
Piritramide	Comes in free or tartrate salt forms.	Mu opioid.	IM, IV, SC.	No data available.	Severe pain.	As per other opioids.
Tapentadol	Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms.	Mu opioid and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor.	PO.	Bioavailability = 32%; protein binding = 20%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6; excretion = urine (70%), faeces; half-life = 4 hours.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per other opioids; less likely to cause nausea, vomiting and constipation.
Tilidine	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and dichloromethane; degrades upon contact with light.	Mu opioid metabolite, nortilidine.	PO.	No data.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per other opioids.
Tramadol	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water and methanol, insoluble in acetone; degrades at temperatures less than 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light.	Mu opioid (mostly via its active metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol) and SNRI.	IM, IV, PO, rectal.	Bioavailability = 70–75% (oral), 100% (IM); protein binding = 20%; hepatic metabolism, via CYP3A4 and CYP2D6; half-life = 6 hours; excretion = urine, faeces.	Moderate-severe pain.	As per other opioids but with less respiratory depression and constipation. Psychiatric AEs reported. Serotonin syndrome possible if used in conjunction with other serotonergics.
Anilidopiperidines
Alfentanil	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in ethanol, water, methanol; degrades upon contact with air and light.	Mu opioid.	Epidural, IM, IV, intrathecally.	Protein binding = 90%; volume of distribution = small; half-life = 1–2 hours; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; excretion = urine.	Procedural anaesthesia.	As per other opioids. Very sedating.
Fentanyl	Comes in free, hydrochloride salt, citrate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (free form), soluble in water (citrate salt form), freely soluble in ethanol and methanol; degrades outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light.	Mu opioid.	Buccal, epidermal, IM, IV, intrathecal, intranasal, SC, sublingual.	Bioavailability = 50% (buccal), 89% (intranasal); protein binding = 80%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; half-life = 219 min; excretion = urine (primary), faeces.	Moderate-severe pain (including labour pain); adjunct to anaesthesia.	As with other opioids, with less nausea, vomiting, constipation and itching and more sedation.
Remifentanil	Comes in hydrochloride salt.	Mu opioid.	IV.	Protein binding = 70%; hydrolysed by blood and tissue esterases; half-life = 20 min; excretion = urine (95%).	Anaesthesia maintenance.	As with fentanyl.
Sufentanil	Comes in free and citrate salt forms; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol; degrades upon contact with light and temperatures outside 15 °C and 30 °C.	Mu opioid.	Epidural, IV, intrathecal, transdermal.	Protein binding = 90%; half-life = 2.5 hours; excretion = urine (80%).	Adjunct to anaesthesia and moderate-severe pain.	As with fentanyl.
Other analgesics
Acetanilide	No data.	Paracetamol prodrug.	PO.	No data.	Pain; fever.	Cancer; AEs of paracetamol.
Amitriptyline	Comes in free form and in hydrochloride and embonate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (embonate salt), freely soluble in water (HCl); degrades upon contact with light.	SNRI.	PO.	Hepatic metabolism, via CYP2C19, CYP3A4; active metabolite, nortriptyline; half-life = 9–27 hours; excretion = urine (18%), faeces.	Neuropathic pain; nocturnal enuresis; major depression; migraine prophylaxis; urinary urge incontinence.	Sedation, anticholinergic effects, weight gain, orthostatic hypotension, sinus tachycardia, sexual dysfunction, tremor, dizziness, sweating, agitation, insomnia, anxiety, confusion.
Dronabinol	Comes in free form; degrades upon contact with light.	Cannabinoid receptor partial agonist.	PO.	Bioavailability = 10–20%; protein binding = 90–99%; volume of distribution = 10 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 25–36 hours, 44–59 hours (metabolites); excretion = faeces (50%), urine (15%).^[108]	Refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting; anorexia; neuropathic pain.	Dizziness, euphoria, paranoia, somnolence, abnormal thinking, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, depression, hallucinations, hypotension, special difficulties, emotional lability, tremors, flushing, etc.
Duloxetine	Comes in hydrochloride salt form; slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in methanol; degrades upon contact with light.	SNRI.	PO.	Protein binding > 90%; volume of distribution = 3.4 L/kg; hepatic metabolism, via CYP2D6, CYP1A2; half-life = 12 hours; excretion = urine (70%), faeces (20%).^[109]	Major depression; generalised anxiety disorder; neuropathic pain.	Anticholinergic effects, GI effects, yawning, sweating, dizziness, weakness, sexual dysfunction, somnolence, insomnia, headache, tremor, decreased appetite.
Flupirtine	Comes as maleate salt. Chemically related to retigabine.	Potassium channel (Kv7) opener.^[110]	PO, rectal.	Bioavailability = 90% (oral), 72.5% (rectal); protein binding = 80%; volume of distribution = 154 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6.5 hours; excretion = urine (72%).	Pain; fibromyalgia; Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.	Drowsiness, dizziness, heartburn, dry mouth, fatigue and nausea.^[111]
Gabapentin	Comes in free and enacarbil salt forms; fairly insoluble in ethanol, dichoromethane, fairly soluble in water.	Binds to the α2δ-1 subunit of voltage gated calcium ion channels in the spinal cord. May also modulate NMDA receptors and protein kinase C.	PO.	Half-life = 5–7 hours.	Neuropathic pain; epilepsy.	Fatigue, sedation, dizziness, ataxia, tremor, diplopia, nystagmus, amblyopia, amnesia, abnormal thinking, hypertension, vasodilation, peripheral oedema, dry mouth, weight gain and rash.
Milnacipran	No data.	SNRI.	PO.	Bioavailability = 85–90%; protein binding = 13%: volume of distribution = 400 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6–8 hours (L-isomer), 8–10 hours (D-isomer); excretion = urine (55%).^[112]	Fibromyalgia.	As per duloxetine, plus hypertension.
Nabiximols	Contains cannabidiol and dronabinol in roughly equal concentrations.	As per dronabinol.	Buccal spray.	Not available.	Neuropathic pain and spasticity as part of MS.	As per dronabinol.
Nefopam	Comes in a hydrochloride salt form. Chemically related to orphenadrine.	Unknown; serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor.	PO, IM.	Protein binding = 73%; half-life = 4 hours; excretion = urine, faeces (8%).	Analgesia, especially postoperative; hiccups.	Has antimuscarinic and sympathomimetic effects.^[113]
Paracetamol	Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with moisture, air and light.	Multiple; inhibits prostaglandin synthesis in the CNS, an active metabolite, AM404, is an anandamide reuptake inhibitor.	PO, IV, IM, rectal.	Protein binding = 10–25%; volume of distribution = 1 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1–3 hours; excretion = urine.^[114]	Analgesia and fever reduction.	Hepatotoxicity; hypersensitivity reactions (rare), including Stevens-Johnson syndrome; hypotension (rare; IV).
Phenacetin	No data.	Prodrug to paracetamol.	PO.	No data.	Analgesia and fever reduction.	Haematologic, nephrotoxicity, cancer and paracetamol AEs.
Pregabalin	Comes in free form.	As per gabapentin.	PO.	Bioavailability = 90%; half-life = 6.3 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (90%).^[115]	Neuropathic pain; anxiety; epilepsy.	As per gabapentin.
Propacetamol	Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with moisture.	Prodrug to paracetamol.	IM, IV.	No data available.	Analgesia and fever reduction.	As per paracetamol.
Ziconotide	Peptide.	N-type calcium-channel blocker.	Intrathecal.	Protein binding = 50%; half-life = 2.9–6.5 hours; excretion = urine (<1%).^[116]	Chronic pain.	CNS toxicity (abnormal gait, abnormal vision, memory problems, etc.); GI effects.^[116]
Where † indicates products that are no longer marketed.

Etymology

The word analgesic derives from Greek an- (ἀν-, "without"), álgos (ἄλγος, "pain"),^[117] and -ikos (-ικος, forming adjectives). Such drugs were usually known as anodynes before the 20th century.^[118]^[119]

Research

Some novel and investigational analgesics include subtype-selective voltage-gated sodium channel blockers such as funapide and raxatrigine, as well as multimodal agents such as ralfinamide.^{[citation needed]}

Notes

^ Anonymous (1990). Cancer pain relief and palliative care; report of a WHO expert committee. World Health Organization Technical Report Series, 804. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. pp. 1–75. ISBN 92-4-120804-X.
^ Dworkin RH, Backonja M, Rowbotham MC, Allen RR, Argoff CR, Bennett GJ, Bushnell MC, Farrar JT, Galer BS, Haythornthwaite JA, Hewitt DJ, Loeser JD, Max MB, Saltarelli M, Schmader KE, Stein C, Thompson D, Turk DC, Wallace MS, Watkins LR, Weinstein SM (2003). "Advances in neuropathic pain: diagnosis, mechanisms, and treatment recommendations". Arch. Neurol. 60 (11): 1524–34. doi:10.1001/archneur.60.11.1524. PMID 14623723.
^ Derry, Sheena; Moore, R. Andrew; Gaskell, Helen; McIntyre, Mairead; Wiffen, Philip J. (2015-06-11). "Topical NSAIDs for acute musculoskeletal pain in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD007402. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007402.pub3. PMID 26068955.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Acetaminophen". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists.
^ Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) (2008). "6.1 and 7.1.1". Guideline 106: Control of pain in adults with cancer (PDF). Scotland: National Health Service (NHS). ISBN 9781905813384.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hochhauser, Daniel (2014). Cancer and its Management. John Wiley & Sons. p. 119. ISBN 9781118468715.
^ Russell, FM; Shann, F; Curtis, N; Mulholland, K (2003). "Evidence on the use of paracetamol in febrile children.". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 81 (5): 367–72. PMC 2572451 . PMID 12856055.
^ Warden SJ (April 2010). "Prophylactic Use of NSAIDs by Athletes: A Risk/Benefit Assessment". The Physician and Sports Medicine. 38 (1): 132–138. doi:10.3810/psm.2010.04.1770. PMID 20424410.
^ ^a ^b Conaghan PG (June 2012). "A turbulent decade for NSAIDs: update on current concepts of classification, epidemiology, comparative efficacy, and toxicity". Rheumatol. Int. 32 (6): 1491–502. doi:10.1007/s00296-011-2263-6. PMC 3364420 . PMID 22193214.
^ Smith, Howard S.; Raffa, Robert B.; Pergolizzi, Joseph V.; Taylor, Robert; Tallarida, Ronald J. (2014-07-01). "Combining opioid and adrenergic mechanisms for chronic pain". Postgraduate Medicine. 126 (4): 98–114. doi:10.3810/pgm.2014.07.2788. PMID 25141248.
^ Driessen B, Reimann W (January 1992). "Interaction of the central analgesic, tramadol, with the uptake and release of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the rat brain in vitro". British Journal of Pharmacology. 105 (1): 147–51. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1992.tb14226.x. PMC 1908625 . PMID 1596676.
^ Bamigbade TA, Davidson C, Langford RM, Stamford JA (September 1997). "Actions of tramadol, its enantiomers and principal metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol, on serotonin (5-HT) efflux and uptake in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 79 (3): 352–6. doi:10.1093/bja/79.3.352. PMID 9389855.
^ Reimann W, Schneider F (May 1998). "Induction of 5-hydroxytryptamine release by tramadol, fenfluramine and reserpine". European Journal of Pharmacology. 349 (2–3): 199–203. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00195-2. PMID 9671098.
^ Gobbi M, Moia M, Pirona L, Ceglia I, Reyes-Parada M, Scorza C, Mennini T (September 2002). "p-Methylthioamphetamine and 1-(m-chlorophenyl)piperazine, two non-neurotoxic 5-HT releasers in vivo, differ from neurotoxic amphetamine derivatives in their mode of action at 5-HT nerve endings in vitro". Journal of Neurochemistry. 82 (6): 1435–43. doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.01073.x. PMID 12354291.
^ Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine, 3rd ed. (Doyle D, Hanks G, Cherney I and Calman K, eds. Oxford University Press, 2004).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Zale, Emily L.; Maisto, Stephen A.; Ditre, Joseph W. (2015). "Interrelations between pain and alcohol: An integrative review". Clinical Psychology Review. 37: 57–71. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.005. PMC 4385458 . PMID 25766100.
^ Murnion, B (December 2015). "Medicinal cannabis.". Australian prescriber. 38 (6): 212–5. doi:10.18773/austprescr.2015.072. PMC 4674028 . PMID 26843715.
^ "What is medical marijuana?". National Institute of Drug Abuse. July 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2016. The term medical marijuana refers to using the whole unprocessed marijuana plant or its basic extracts to treat a disease or symptom.
^ Borgelt, LM; Franson, KL; Nussbaum, AM; Wang, GS (February 2013). "The pharmacologic and clinical effects of medical cannabis.". Pharmacotherapy. 33 (2): 195–209. doi:10.1002/phar.1187. PMID 23386598.
^ Whiting, PF; Wolff, RF; Deshpande, S; Di Nisio, M; Duffy, S; Hernandez, AV; Keurentjes, JC; Lang, S; Misso, K; Ryder, S; Schmidlkofer, S; Westwood, M; Kleijnen, J (23 June 2015). "Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.". JAMA. 313 (24): 2456–2473. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6358. hdl:10757/558499. PMID 26103030.
^ Jensen, Bjorn; Chen, Jeffrey; Furnish, Tim; Wallace, Mark (1 September 2015). "Medical Marijuana and Chronic Pain: a Review of Basic Science and Clinical Evidence". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 19 (10). doi:10.1007/s11916-015-0524-x.
^ Mehlisch DR (2002). "The efficacy of combination analgesic therapy in relieving dental pain". J Am Dent Assoc. 133 (7): 861–71. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2002.0300. PMID 12148679.
^ Murnion B. "Combination analgesics in adults". Australian Prescriber (33): 113–5. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
^ Thomas, Donna-Ann; Maslin, Benjamin; Legler, Aron; Springer, Erin; Asgerally, Abbas; Vadivelu, Nalini (2 April 2016). "Role of Alternative Therapies for Chronic Pain Syndromes". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 20 (5). doi:10.1007/s11916-016-0562-z.
^ ^a ^b
- Oltean, Hanna; Robbins, Chris; van Tulder, Maurits W; Berman, Brian M; Bombardier, Claire; Gagnier, Joel J; Gagnier, Joel J (2014). "Herbal medicine for low-back pain". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004504.pub4.
- Cameron, Melainie; Gagnier, Joel J; Chrubasik, Sigrun; Cameron, Melainie (2011). "Herbal therapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002948.pub2.
- Cui, Xuejun; Trinh, Kien; Wang, Yong-Jun; Cui, Xuejun (2010). "Chinese herbal medicine for chronic neck pain due to cervical degenerative disc disease". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006556.pub2.
^ K. J. Elliott, MD; M. Brodsky, BS; A. Hynansky, BA; K. M. Foley, MD; C. E. Inturrisi, PhD. Dextromethorphan shows efficacy in experimental pain (nociception) and opioid tolerance. NEUROLOGY, 2005.
^ Ian Eardley; Peter Whelan; Roger Kirby; Anthony Schaeffer. "Drugs Used In The Treatment Of Interstitial Cystitis". Drug Treatment in Urology. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. p. 65.
^ Kornhuber J, Bleich S, Wiltfang J, Maler M, Parsons CG (1999). "Flupirtine shows functional NMDA receptor antagonism by enhancing Mg2+ block via activation of voltage independent potassium channels. Rapid communication". J Neural Transm. 106 (9–10): 857–67. doi:10.1007/s007020050206. PMID 10599868.
^ Klawe C, Maschke M (2009). "Flupirtine: pharmacology and clinical applications of a nonopioid analgesic and potentially neuroprotective compound". Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy. 10 (9): 1495–500. doi:10.1517/14656560902988528. PMID 19505216.
^ Stoessel C, Heberlein A, Hillemacher T, Bleich S, Kornhuber J (August 2010). "Positive reinforcing effects of flupirtine—two case reports". Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 34 (6): 1120–1. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.031. PMID 20362025.
^ Voltaren Gel (diclofenac sodium topical gel) 1% – Hepatic Effects Labeling Changes
^ [1] Archived October 19, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Brayfield, A (ed.). "Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference". Medicines Complete. Pharmaceutical Press. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Brunton, L; Chabner, B; Knollman, B (2010). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-162442-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Rossi, S, ed. (2013). Australian Medicines Handbook (2013 ed.). Adelaide: The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust. ISBN 978-0-9805790-9-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Joint Formulary Committee (2013). British National Formulary (BNF) (65 ed.). London, UK: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 978-0-85711-084-8.
^ "Zorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
^ "Seractil 300mg Film-Coated Tablets – Summary of Product Characteristics". electronic Medicines Compendium. Genus Pharmaceuticals. 30 September 2005. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Derry S, Best J, Moore RA (October 2013). "Single dose oral dexibuprofen [S(+)-ibuprofen] for acute postoperative pain in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 10 (10): CD007550. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007550.pub3. PMID 24151035.
^ ^a ^b "Cardiovascular safety of Cox-2 inhibitors and non-selective NSAIDs". MHRA. 26 July 2013. Archived from the original on April 13, 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ "(diflunisal) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ "Nalfon (fenoprofen) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ ^a ^b Abdel-Aziz AA, Al-Badr AA, Hafez GA (2012). "Flurbiprofen" (PDF). Profiles of Drug Substances, Excipients, and Related Methodology. Profiles of Drug Substances, Excipients and Related Methodology. 37: 113–81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397220-0.00004-0. ISBN 9780123972200. PMID 22469318.
^ Smith HS, Voss B (February 2012). "Pharmacokinetics of intravenous ibuprofen: implications of time of infusion in the treatment of pain and fever". Drugs. 72 (3): 327–37. doi:10.2165/11599230-000000000-00000. PMID 22316349.
^ Neumann R, Schulzke SM, Bührer C (2012). "Oral ibuprofen versus intravenous ibuprofen or intravenous indomethacin for the treatment of patent ductus arteriosus in preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Neonatology. 102 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1159/000335332. PMID 22414850.
^ Johnston PG, Gillam-Krakauer M, Fuller MP, Reese J (March 2012). "Evidence-based use of indomethacin and ibuprofen in the neonatal intensive care unit". Clinics in Perinatology. 39 (1): 111–36. doi:10.1016/j.clp.2011.12.002. PMC 3598606 . PMID 22341541.
^ "Arthrexin Indomethacin PRODUCT INFORMATION" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Alphapharm Pty Limited. 14 October 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Coaccioli S (August 2011). "Ketoprofen 2.5% gel: a clinical overview.". European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 15 (8): 943–9. PMID 21845805.
^ Adachi H, Ioppolo F, Paoloni M, Santilli V (July 2011). "Physical characteristics, pharmacological properties and clinical efficacy of the ketoprofen patch: a new patch formulation". European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 15 (7): 823–30. PMID 21780552.
^ Kokki, H (October 2010). "Ketoprofen pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and tolerability in pediatric patients.". Paediatric drugs. 12 (5): 313–29. doi:10.2165/11534910-000000000-00000. PMID 20799760.
^ Shohin, IE; Kulinich, JI; Ramenskaya, GV; Abrahamsson, B; Kopp, S; Langguth, P; Polli, JE; Shah, VP; et al. (October 2012). "Biowaiver monographs for immediate-release solid oral dosage forms: ketoprofen". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 101 (10): 3593–603. doi:10.1002/jps.23233. PMID 22786667.
^ Sarzi-Puttini, P; Atzeni, F; Lanata, L; Bagnasco, M; Colombo, M; Fischer, F; D'Imporzano, M (July–September 2010). "Pain and ketoprofen: what is its role in clinical practice?". Reumatismo. 62 (3): 172–88. doi:10.4081/reumatismo.2010.172. PMID 21052564.
^ "NAME OF THE MEDICINE TORADOL® (ketorolac trometamol)" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. ROCHE PRODUCTS PTY LIMITED. 3 February 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ McCormack PL (July 2011). "Ketorolac 0.45% ophthalmic solution.". Drugs & Aging. 28 (7): 583–9. doi:10.2165/11207450-000000000-00000. PMID 21721602.
^ Sinha VR, Kumar RV, Singh G (September 2009). "Ketorolac tromethamine formulations: an overview". Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery. 6 (9): 961–75. doi:10.1517/17425240903116006. PMID 19663721.
^ De Oliveira GS, Agarwal D, Benzon HT (February 2012). "Perioperative single dose ketorolac to prevent postoperative pain: a meta-analysis of randomized trials". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 114 (2): 424–33. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182334d68. PMID 21965355.
^ Garnock-Jones KP (June 2012). "Intranasal ketorolac: for short-term pain management.". Clinical Drug Investigation. 32 (6): 361–71. doi:10.2165/11209240-000000000-00000. PMID 22574632.
^ He A, Hersh EV (December 2012). "A review of intranasal ketorolac tromethamine for the short-term management of moderate to moderately severe pain that requires analgesia at the opioid level". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 28 (12): 1873–80. doi:10.1185/03007995.2012.744302. PMID 23098098.
^ Taggart E, Doran S, Kokotillo A, Campbell S, Villa-Roel C, Rowe BH (February 2013). "Ketorolac in the treatment of acute migraine: a systematic review". Headache. 53 (2): 277–87. doi:10.1111/head.12009. PMID 23298250.
^ Yilmaz T, Cordero-Coma M, Gallagher MJ (February 2012). "Ketorolac therapy for the prevention of acute pseudophakic cystoid macular edema: a systematic review". Eye. 26 (2): 252–8. doi:10.1038/eye.2011.296. PMC 3272202 . PMID 22094296.
^ Balfour JA, Fitton A, Barradell LB (April 1996). "Lornoxicam. A review of its pharmacology and therapeutic potential in the management of painful and inflammatory conditions". Drugs. 51 (4): 639–57. doi:10.2165/00003495-199651040-00008. PMID 8706598.
^ Skjodt NM, Davies NM (June 1998). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of lornoxicam. A short half-life oxicam". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 34 (6): 421–8. doi:10.2165/00003088-199834060-00001. PMID 9646006.
^ "PRODUCT INFORMATION PONSTAN® CAPSULES (mefenamic acid)" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Pfizer Australia Pty Ltd. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ "Relafen (nabumetone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Todd PA, Clissold SP (July 1990). "Naproxen. A reappraisal of its pharmacology, and therapeutic use in rheumatic diseases and pain states". Drugs. 40 (1): 91–137. doi:10.2165/00003495-199040010-00006. PMID 2202585.
^ "Daypro (oxaprozin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Todd PA, Brogden RN (October 1986). "Oxaprozin. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 32 (4): 291–312. doi:10.2165/00003495-198632040-00001. PMID 3536423.
^ "CHEMMART PIROXICAM CAPSULES" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Apotex Pty Ltd. 18 December 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Brogden RN, Heel RC, Speight TM, Avery GS (October 1984). "Piroxicam. A reappraisal of its pharmacology and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 28 (4): 292–323. doi:10.2165/00003495-199448060-00007. PMID 6386426.
^ "(salsalate) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ "Aclin Sulindac" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Alphapharm Pty Limited. 8 November 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Gonzalez JP, Todd PA (September 1987). "Tenoxicam. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 34 (3): 289–310. doi:10.2165/00003495-198734030-00001. PMID 3315620.
^ Davies NM (November 1996). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of tiaprofenic acid and its enantiomers.". Clinical pharmacokinetics. 31 (5): 331–47. doi:10.2165/00003088-199631050-00002. PMID 9118583.
^ Brogden RN, Heel RC, Speight TM, Avery GS (June 1978). "Tolmetin: a review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in rheumatic diseases". Drugs. 15 (6): 429–50. doi:10.2165/00003495-197815060-00002. PMID 350558.
^ McCormack PL (December 2011). "Celecoxib: a review of its use for symptomatic relief in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis.". Drugs. 71 (18): 2457–89. doi:10.2165/11208240-000000000-00000. PMID 22141388.
^ Lynch S, Brogden RN (April 1986). "Etodolac. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic activity and therapeutic use". Drugs. 31 (4): 288–300. doi:10.2165/00003495-198631040-00002. PMID 2940079.
^ Balfour JA, Buckley MM (August 1991). "Etodolac. A reappraisal of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in rheumatic diseases and pain states". Drugs. 42 (2): 274–99. doi:10.2165/00003495-199142020-00008. PMID 1717225.
^ Brocks DR, Jamali F (April 1994). "Etodolac clinical pharmacokinetics". Clinical pharmacokinetics. 26 (4): 259–74. doi:10.2165/00003088-199426040-00003. PMID 8013160.
^ Takemoto JK, Reynolds JK, Remsberg CM, Vega-Villa KR, Davies NM (2008). "Clinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of etoricoxib". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 47 (11): 703–20. doi:10.2165/00003088-200847110-00002. PMID 18840026.
^ Bannwarth B, Bérenbaum F (July 2007). "Lumiracoxib in the management of osteoarthritis and acute pain". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 8 (10): 1551–64. doi:10.1517/14656566.8.10.1551. PMID 17661736.
^ Davies NM, Skjodt NM (February 1999). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of meloxicam. A cyclo-oxygenase-2 preferential nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 36 (2): 115–26. doi:10.2165/00003088-199936020-00003. PMID 10092958.
^ "PRODUCT INFORMATION DYNASTAT parecoxib (as sodium)" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Pfizer Australia Pty Ltd. 6 February 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
^ Scott LJ, Lamb HM (September 1999). "Rofecoxib". Drugs. 58 (3): 499–505; discussion 506–7. doi:10.2165/00003495-199958030-00016. PMID 10493277.
^ Hillson JL, Furst DE (July 2000). "Rofecoxib". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 1 (5): 1053–66. doi:10.1517/14656566.1.5.1053. PMID 11249495.
^ Ormrod D, Wellington K, Wagstaff AJ (2002). "Valdecoxib". Drugs. 62 (14): 2059–71; discussion 2072–3. doi:10.2165/00003495-200262140-00005. PMID 12269850.
^ "Buprenex, Subutex (buprenorphine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ "PRODUCT INFORMATION ACTACODE" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Aspen Pharma Pty Ltd. 19 September 2006. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ "Zohydro ER (hydrocodone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ "Dilaudid, Dilaudid HP (hydromorphone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ "Roxicodone, OxyContin (oxycodone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ "Opana, Opana ER (oxymorphone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ "Stadol (butorphanol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ ^a ^b Prommer E (March 2007). "Levorphanol: the forgotten opioid.". Supportive Care in Cancer. 15 (3): 259–64. doi:10.1007/s00520-006-0146-2. PMID 17039381.
^ "Levo Dromoran (levorphanol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ "Nubain (nalbuphine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Errick JK, Heel RC (September 1983). "Nalbuphine. A preliminary review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 26 (3): 191–211. doi:10.2165/00003495-198326030-00002. PMID 6137354.
^ Brogden RN, Speight TM, Avery GS (1973). "Pentazocine: a review of its pharmacological properties, therapeutic efficacy and dependence liability". Drugs. 5 (1): 6–91. doi:10.2165/00003495-197305010-00002. PMID 4578369.
^ "Talwin (pentazocine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Anderson P, Arnér S, Bondesson U, Boréus LO, Hartvig P (1982). "Single-dose kinetics and bioavailability of ketobemidone". Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum. 74: 59–62. PMID 6124079.
^ "Demerol, Pethidine (meperidine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Shipton E (March 2006). "Should New Zealand continue signing up to the Pethidine Protocol?" (PDF). The New Zealand Medical Journal. 119 (1230): U1875. PMID 16532042. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 8, 2014.
^ Latta KS, Ginsberg B, Barkin RL (January–February 2002). "Meperidine: a critical review". American Journal of Therapeutics. 9 (1): 53–68. doi:10.1097/00045391-200201000-00010. PMID 11782820.
^ MacPherson, RD; Duguid, MD (2008). "Strategy to Eliminate Pethidine Use in Hospitals" (PDF). Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research. 38 (2): 88–89.
^ Mather LE, Meffin PJ (September–October 1978). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of pethidine". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 3 (5): 352–68. doi:10.2165/00003088-197803050-00002. PMID 359212.
^ "Dipipanone 10mg + Cyclizine 30mg Tablets – Summary of Product Characteristics". 22 August 2012. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Holmes B, Ward A (October 1985). "Meptazinol. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 30 (4): 285–312. doi:10.2165/00003495-198530040-00001. PMID 2998723.
^ Lugo RA, Satterfield KL, Kern SE (2005). "Pharmacokinetics of methadone". Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 19 (4): 13–24. doi:10.1080/J354v19n04_05. PMID 16431829.
^ "Marinol (dronabinol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ "Cymbalta (duloxetine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Szelenyi I (March 2013). "Flupirtine, a re-discovered drug, revisited.". Inflammation Research. 62 (3): 251–8. doi:10.1007/s00011-013-0592-5. PMID 23322112.
^ Devulder J (October 2010). "Flupirtine in pain management: pharmacological properties and clinical use.". CNS Drugs. 24 (10): 867–81. doi:10.2165/11536230-000000000-00000. PMID 20839897.
^ "Savella (milnacipran) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Evans MS, Lysakowski C, Tramèr MR (November 2008). "Nefopam for the prevention of postoperative pain: quantitative systematic review" (PDF). British Journal of Anaesthesia. 101 (5): 610–7. doi:10.1093/bja/aen267. PMID 18796441.
^ "Tylenol, Tylenol Infants' Drops (acetaminophen) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ McKeage K, Keam SJ (2009). "Pregabalin: in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia". Drugs & Aging. 26 (10): 883–92. doi:10.2165/11203750-000000000-00000. PMID 19761281.
^ ^a ^b "Prialt (ziconotide) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ Harper,D. (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary: Analgesia". Retrieved December 3, 2012.
^ EB (1878).
^ EB (1911).

References

Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "Anodyne", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 90 .
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Anodyne", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 79 .

English Journal

Polysubstance use, mental health and high-risk behaviours: Results from the 2012 Global Drug Survey.

Morley KI1, Lynskey MT, Moran P, Borschmann R, Winstock AR.
Drug and alcohol review.Drug Alcohol Rev.2015 Apr 13. doi: 10.1111/dar.12263. [Epub ahead of print]
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Polysubstance use is associated with adverse health and social outcomes, but few studies have investigated whether these associations differ between individuals engaged in different patterns of illicit drug and non-prescription medication use.DESIGN AND METHODS: Latent class a
PMID 25867685

Reversibly changing a painkiller structure: A hot topic for a cold case-Ibuprofen lysine salt.

Vladiskovic C1, Masciocchi N2.
Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis.J Pharm Biomed Anal.2015 Mar 25;107:394-402. doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.01.028. Epub 2015 Jan 22.
Ibuprofen lysine salt can undergo a fully reversible, thermally induced phase transition into a different enantiotropically related polymorphic form. The structures of both the high and low temperature phases were solved using state-of-the-art X-ray powder diffraction methods, showing many similarit
PMID 25659531

Transcranial direct current stimulation in the prophylactic treatment of migraine based on interictal visual cortex excitability abnormalities: A pilot randomized controlled trial.

Rocha S1, Melo L2, Boudoux C3, Foerster Á4, Araújo D5, Monte-Silva K6.
Journal of the neurological sciences.J Neurol Sci.2015 Feb 15;349(1-2):33-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2014.12.018. Epub 2014 Dec 18.
PURPOSE: The aims of this paper are (i) to compare the excitability of visual cortex in migraine patients with healthy volunteers; and (ii) if an abnormal excitability has been found, to modulate cortical excitability in migraine patients with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and obser
PMID 25579414

Japanese Journal

85.コスミレ(Viola japonica)が産生する成分とその機能性(口頭発表)

飯村健,富田-横谷香織,小瀬村誠治,藤井義晴,佐藤誠吾
植物化学調節学会研究発表記録集 (45), 102, 2010-10-01
… Genus Viola has been used as a Chinese herbal medicine, SHIKAJICHO, for some disease, antipyretic one and painkiller etc. …
NAID 110007767185

放射線治療を受ける中咽頭癌患者の咽頭痛に関連している因子(一般講演A2,看護)

山田ゆかり,真島奈都美,柴田有佳里,山縣陽子,塩田ゆき江,萩原由美
バイオメディカル・ファジィ・システム学会大会講演論文集 : BMFSA (22), 53-56, 2009-10-10
… It is found that the significant differences are recognized as a order of total radiation dose, internal medicine of painkiller, habit of drinking, history of sleeping pill, diabetic mellitus, stage of cancer, time period, amount of smoking, intake of meal. …
NAID 110008136517

Related Pictures

Painkiller 560x200 5 Cures to Modern FPS Painkiller: Hell and Damnation Xbox 360 Painkiller: Hell & Damnation Review - IGN dragonsworn [game review] - Painkiller Painkiller Black Edition System Painkiller Hell and Damnation System Painkiller - Galeria - Enklawa

[1] Anonymous (1990). Cancer pain relief and palliative care; report of a WHO expert committee. World Health Organization Technical Report Series, 804. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. pp. 1–75. ISBN 92-4-120804-X.

[pmid14623723-2] Dworkin RH, Backonja M, Rowbotham MC, Allen RR, Argoff CR, Bennett GJ, Bushnell MC, Farrar JT, Galer BS, Haythornthwaite JA, Hewitt DJ, Loeser JD, Max MB, Saltarelli M, Schmader KE, Stein C, Thompson D, Turk DC, Wallace MS, Watkins LR, Weinstein SM (2003). "Advances in neuropathic pain: diagnosis, mechanisms, and treatment recommendations". Arch. Neurol. 60 (11): 1524–34. doi:10.1001/archneur.60.11.1524. PMID 14623723.

[3] Derry, Sheena; Moore, R. Andrew; Gaskell, Helen; McIntyre, Mairead; Wiffen, Philip J. (2015-06-11). "Topical NSAIDs for acute musculoskeletal pain in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD007402. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007402.pub3. PMID 26068955.

[AHFS2016-4] "Acetaminophen". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists.

[5] Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) (2008). "6.1 and 7.1.1". Guideline 106: Control of pain in adults with cancer (PDF). Scotland: National Health Service (NHS). ISBN 9781905813384.

[Hoch2014-6] Hochhauser, Daniel (2014). Cancer and its Management. John Wiley & Sons. p. 119. ISBN 9781118468715.

[7] Russell, FM; Shann, F; Curtis, N; Mulholland, K (2003). "Evidence on the use of paracetamol in febrile children.". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 81 (5): 367–72. PMC 2572451 . PMID 12856055.

[The_Physician_and_Sportsmedicine_2010-8] Warden SJ (April 2010). "Prophylactic Use of NSAIDs by Athletes: A Risk/Benefit Assessment". The Physician and Sports Medicine. 38 (1): 132–138. doi:10.3810/psm.2010.04.1770. PMID 20424410.

[Conaghan2012-9] Conaghan PG (June 2012). "A turbulent decade for NSAIDs: update on current concepts of classification, epidemiology, comparative efficacy, and toxicity". Rheumatol. Int. 32 (6): 1491–502. doi:10.1007/s00296-011-2263-6. PMC 3364420 . PMID 22193214.

[10] Smith, Howard S.; Raffa, Robert B.; Pergolizzi, Joseph V.; Taylor, Robert; Tallarida, Ronald J. (2014-07-01). "Combining opioid and adrenergic mechanisms for chronic pain". Postgraduate Medicine. 126 (4): 98–114. doi:10.3810/pgm.2014.07.2788. PMID 25141248.

[pmid1596676-11] Driessen B, Reimann W (January 1992). "Interaction of the central analgesic, tramadol, with the uptake and release of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the rat brain in vitro". British Journal of Pharmacology. 105 (1): 147–51. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1992.tb14226.x. PMC 1908625 . PMID 1596676.

[pmid9389855-12] Bamigbade TA, Davidson C, Langford RM, Stamford JA (September 1997). "Actions of tramadol, its enantiomers and principal metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol, on serotonin (5-HT) efflux and uptake in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 79 (3): 352–6. doi:10.1093/bja/79.3.352. PMID 9389855.

[pmid9671098-13] Reimann W, Schneider F (May 1998). "Induction of 5-hydroxytryptamine release by tramadol, fenfluramine and reserpine". European Journal of Pharmacology. 349 (2–3): 199–203. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00195-2. PMID 9671098.

[pmid12354291-14] Gobbi M, Moia M, Pirona L, Ceglia I, Reyes-Parada M, Scorza C, Mennini T (September 2002). "p-Methylthioamphetamine and 1-(m-chlorophenyl)piperazine, two non-neurotoxic 5-HT releasers in vivo, differ from neurotoxic amphetamine derivatives in their mode of action at 5-HT nerve endings in vitro". Journal of Neurochemistry. 82 (6): 1435–43. doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.01073.x. PMID 12354291.

[oxford-15] Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine, 3rd ed. (Doyle D, Hanks G, Cherney I and Calman K, eds. Oxford University Press, 2004).

[ZaleMaisto2015-16] Zale, Emily L.; Maisto, Stephen A.; Ditre, Joseph W. (2015). "Interrelations between pain and alcohol: An integrative review". Clinical Psychology Review. 37: 57–71. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.005. PMC 4385458 . PMID 25766100.

[17] Murnion, B (December 2015). "Medicinal cannabis.". Australian prescriber. 38 (6): 212–5. doi:10.18773/austprescr.2015.072. PMC 4674028 . PMID 26843715.

[18] "What is medical marijuana?". National Institute of Drug Abuse. July 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2016. The term medical marijuana refers to using the whole unprocessed marijuana plant or its basic extracts to treat a disease or symptom.

[Borgelt2013-19] Borgelt, LM; Franson, KL; Nussbaum, AM; Wang, GS (February 2013). "The pharmacologic and clinical effects of medical cannabis.". Pharmacotherapy. 33 (2): 195–209. doi:10.1002/phar.1187. PMID 23386598.

[JAMA2015-20] Whiting, PF; Wolff, RF; Deshpande, S; Di Nisio, M; Duffy, S; Hernandez, AV; Keurentjes, JC; Lang, S; Misso, K; Ryder, S; Schmidlkofer, S; Westwood, M; Kleijnen, J (23 June 2015). "Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.". JAMA. 313 (24): 2456–2473. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6358. hdl:10757/558499. PMID 26103030.

[21] Jensen, Bjorn; Chen, Jeffrey; Furnish, Tim; Wallace, Mark (1 September 2015). "Medical Marijuana and Chronic Pain: a Review of Basic Science and Clinical Evidence". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 19 (10). doi:10.1007/s11916-015-0524-x.

[pmid12148679-22] Mehlisch DR (2002). "The efficacy of combination analgesic therapy in relieving dental pain". J Am Dent Assoc. 133 (7): 861–71. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2002.0300. PMID 12148679.

[nps01-23] Murnion B. "Combination analgesics in adults". Australian Prescriber (33): 113–5. Retrieved 12 August 2010.

[24] Thomas, Donna-Ann; Maslin, Benjamin; Legler, Aron; Springer, Erin; Asgerally, Abbas; Vadivelu, Nalini (2 April 2016). "Role of Alternative Therapies for Chronic Pain Syndromes". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 20 (5). doi:10.1007/s11916-016-0562-z.

[alternative_medicine_reviews-25] 

Oltean, Hanna; Robbins, Chris; van Tulder, Maurits W; Berman, Brian M; Bombardier, Claire; Gagnier, Joel J; Gagnier, Joel J (2014). "Herbal medicine for low-back pain". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004504.pub4.

Cameron, Melainie; Gagnier, Joel J; Chrubasik, Sigrun; Cameron, Melainie (2011). "Herbal therapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002948.pub2.

Cui, Xuejun; Trinh, Kien; Wang, Yong-Jun; Cui, Xuejun (2010). "Chinese herbal medicine for chronic neck pain due to cervical degenerative disc disease". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006556.pub2.

[26] Oltean, Hanna; Robbins, Chris; van Tulder, Maurits W; Berman, Brian M; Bombardier, Claire; Gagnier, Joel J; Gagnier, Joel J (2014). "Herbal medicine for low-back pain". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004504.pub4.

[27] Cameron, Melainie; Gagnier, Joel J; Chrubasik, Sigrun; Cameron, Melainie (2011). "Herbal therapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002948.pub2.

[28] Cui, Xuejun; Trinh, Kien; Wang, Yong-Jun; Cui, Xuejun (2010). "Chinese herbal medicine for chronic neck pain due to cervical degenerative disc disease". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006556.pub2.

[26] K. J. Elliott, MD; M. Brodsky, BS; A. Hynansky, BA; K. M. Foley, MD; C. E. Inturrisi, PhD. Dextromethorphan shows efficacy in experimental pain (nociception) and opioid tolerance. NEUROLOGY, 2005.

[27] Ian Eardley; Peter Whelan; Roger Kirby; Anthony Schaeffer. "Drugs Used In The Treatment Of Interstitial Cystitis". Drug Treatment in Urology. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. p. 65.

[28] Kornhuber J, Bleich S, Wiltfang J, Maler M, Parsons CG (1999). "Flupirtine shows functional NMDA receptor antagonism by enhancing Mg2+ block via activation of voltage independent potassium channels. Rapid communication". J Neural Transm. 106 (9–10): 857–67. doi:10.1007/s007020050206. PMID 10599868.

[29] Klawe C, Maschke M (2009). "Flupirtine: pharmacology and clinical applications of a nonopioid analgesic and potentially neuroprotective compound". Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy. 10 (9): 1495–500. doi:10.1517/14656560902988528. PMID 19505216.

[30] Stoessel C, Heberlein A, Hillemacher T, Bleich S, Kornhuber J (August 2010). "Positive reinforcing effects of flupirtine—two case reports". Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 34 (6): 1120–1. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.031. PMID 20362025.

[31] Voltaren Gel (diclofenac sodium topical gel) 1% – Hepatic Effects Labeling Changes

[32] [1] Archived October 19, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.

[MD-33] Brayfield, A (ed.). "Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference". Medicines Complete. Pharmaceutical Press. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[GG-34] Brunton, L; Chabner, B; Knollman, B (2010). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-162442-8.

[AMH-35] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Rossi, S, ed. (2013). Australian Medicines Handbook (2013 ed.). Adelaide: The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust. ISBN 978-0-9805790-9-3.

[BNF-36] Joint Formulary Committee (2013). British National Formulary (BNF) (65 ed.). London, UK: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 978-0-85711-084-8.

[AMSR-37] "Zorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 6 April 2014.

[38] "Seractil 300mg Film-Coated Tablets – Summary of Product Characteristics". electronic Medicines Compendium. Genus Pharmaceuticals. 30 September 2005. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[39] Derry S, Best J, Moore RA (October 2013). "Single dose oral dexibuprofen [S(+)-ibuprofen] for acute postoperative pain in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 10 (10): CD007550. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007550.pub3. PMID 24151035.

[card-40] "Cardiovascular safety of Cox-2 inhibitors and non-selective NSAIDs". MHRA. 26 July 2013. Archived from the original on April 13, 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[41] "(diflunisal) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[42] "Nalfon (fenoprofen) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[saudi-43] Abdel-Aziz AA, Al-Badr AA, Hafez GA (2012). "Flurbiprofen" (PDF). Profiles of Drug Substances, Excipients, and Related Methodology. Profiles of Drug Substances, Excipients and Related Methodology. 37: 113–81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397220-0.00004-0. ISBN 9780123972200. PMID 22469318.

[44] Smith HS, Voss B (February 2012). "Pharmacokinetics of intravenous ibuprofen: implications of time of infusion in the treatment of pain and fever". Drugs. 72 (3): 327–37. doi:10.2165/11599230-000000000-00000. PMID 22316349.

[45] Neumann R, Schulzke SM, Bührer C (2012). "Oral ibuprofen versus intravenous ibuprofen or intravenous indomethacin for the treatment of patent ductus arteriosus in preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Neonatology. 102 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1159/000335332. PMID 22414850.

[46] Johnston PG, Gillam-Krakauer M, Fuller MP, Reese J (March 2012). "Evidence-based use of indomethacin and ibuprofen in the neonatal intensive care unit". Clinics in Perinatology. 39 (1): 111–36. doi:10.1016/j.clp.2011.12.002. PMC 3598606 . PMID 22341541.

[47] "Arthrexin Indomethacin PRODUCT INFORMATION" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Alphapharm Pty Limited. 14 October 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[48] Coaccioli S (August 2011). "Ketoprofen 2.5% gel: a clinical overview.". European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 15 (8): 943–9. PMID 21845805.

[49] Adachi H, Ioppolo F, Paoloni M, Santilli V (July 2011). "Physical characteristics, pharmacological properties and clinical efficacy of the ketoprofen patch: a new patch formulation". European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 15 (7): 823–30. PMID 21780552.

[50] Kokki, H (October 2010). "Ketoprofen pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and tolerability in pediatric patients.". Paediatric drugs. 12 (5): 313–29. doi:10.2165/11534910-000000000-00000. PMID 20799760.

[51] Shohin, IE; Kulinich, JI; Ramenskaya, GV; Abrahamsson, B; Kopp, S; Langguth, P; Polli, JE; Shah, VP; et al. (October 2012). "Biowaiver monographs for immediate-release solid oral dosage forms: ketoprofen". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 101 (10): 3593–603. doi:10.1002/jps.23233. PMID 22786667.

[52] Sarzi-Puttini, P; Atzeni, F; Lanata, L; Bagnasco, M; Colombo, M; Fischer, F; D'Imporzano, M (July–September 2010). "Pain and ketoprofen: what is its role in clinical practice?". Reumatismo. 62 (3): 172–88. doi:10.4081/reumatismo.2010.172. PMID 21052564.

[53] "NAME OF THE MEDICINE TORADOL® (ketorolac trometamol)" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. ROCHE PRODUCTS PTY LIMITED. 3 February 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[54] McCormack PL (July 2011). "Ketorolac 0.45% ophthalmic solution.". Drugs & Aging. 28 (7): 583–9. doi:10.2165/11207450-000000000-00000. PMID 21721602.

[55] Sinha VR, Kumar RV, Singh G (September 2009). "Ketorolac tromethamine formulations: an overview". Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery. 6 (9): 961–75. doi:10.1517/17425240903116006. PMID 19663721.

[56] De Oliveira GS, Agarwal D, Benzon HT (February 2012). "Perioperative single dose ketorolac to prevent postoperative pain: a meta-analysis of randomized trials". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 114 (2): 424–33. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182334d68. PMID 21965355.

[57] Garnock-Jones KP (June 2012). "Intranasal ketorolac: for short-term pain management.". Clinical Drug Investigation. 32 (6): 361–71. doi:10.2165/11209240-000000000-00000. PMID 22574632.

[58] He A, Hersh EV (December 2012). "A review of intranasal ketorolac tromethamine for the short-term management of moderate to moderately severe pain that requires analgesia at the opioid level". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 28 (12): 1873–80. doi:10.1185/03007995.2012.744302. PMID 23098098.

[59] Taggart E, Doran S, Kokotillo A, Campbell S, Villa-Roel C, Rowe BH (February 2013). "Ketorolac in the treatment of acute migraine: a systematic review". Headache. 53 (2): 277–87. doi:10.1111/head.12009. PMID 23298250.

[60] Yilmaz T, Cordero-Coma M, Gallagher MJ (February 2012). "Ketorolac therapy for the prevention of acute pseudophakic cystoid macular edema: a systematic review". Eye. 26 (2): 252–8. doi:10.1038/eye.2011.296. PMC 3272202 . PMID 22094296.

[61] Balfour JA, Fitton A, Barradell LB (April 1996). "Lornoxicam. A review of its pharmacology and therapeutic potential in the management of painful and inflammatory conditions". Drugs. 51 (4): 639–57. doi:10.2165/00003495-199651040-00008. PMID 8706598.

[62] Skjodt NM, Davies NM (June 1998). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of lornoxicam. A short half-life oxicam". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 34 (6): 421–8. doi:10.2165/00003088-199834060-00001. PMID 9646006.

[63] "PRODUCT INFORMATION PONSTAN® CAPSULES (mefenamic acid)" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Pfizer Australia Pty Ltd. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[64] "Relafen (nabumetone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[65] Todd PA, Clissold SP (July 1990). "Naproxen. A reappraisal of its pharmacology, and therapeutic use in rheumatic diseases and pain states". Drugs. 40 (1): 91–137. doi:10.2165/00003495-199040010-00006. PMID 2202585.

[66] "Daypro (oxaprozin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[67] Todd PA, Brogden RN (October 1986). "Oxaprozin. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 32 (4): 291–312. doi:10.2165/00003495-198632040-00001. PMID 3536423.

[68] "CHEMMART PIROXICAM CAPSULES" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Apotex Pty Ltd. 18 December 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[69] Brogden RN, Heel RC, Speight TM, Avery GS (October 1984). "Piroxicam. A reappraisal of its pharmacology and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 28 (4): 292–323. doi:10.2165/00003495-199448060-00007. PMID 6386426.

[70] "(salsalate) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[71] "Aclin Sulindac" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Alphapharm Pty Limited. 8 November 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[72] Gonzalez JP, Todd PA (September 1987). "Tenoxicam. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 34 (3): 289–310. doi:10.2165/00003495-198734030-00001. PMID 3315620.

[73] Davies NM (November 1996). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of tiaprofenic acid and its enantiomers.". Clinical pharmacokinetics. 31 (5): 331–47. doi:10.2165/00003088-199631050-00002. PMID 9118583.

[74] Brogden RN, Heel RC, Speight TM, Avery GS (June 1978). "Tolmetin: a review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in rheumatic diseases". Drugs. 15 (6): 429–50. doi:10.2165/00003495-197815060-00002. PMID 350558.

[75] McCormack PL (December 2011). "Celecoxib: a review of its use for symptomatic relief in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis.". Drugs. 71 (18): 2457–89. doi:10.2165/11208240-000000000-00000. PMID 22141388.

[76] Lynch S, Brogden RN (April 1986). "Etodolac. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic activity and therapeutic use". Drugs. 31 (4): 288–300. doi:10.2165/00003495-198631040-00002. PMID 2940079.

[77] Balfour JA, Buckley MM (August 1991). "Etodolac. A reappraisal of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in rheumatic diseases and pain states". Drugs. 42 (2): 274–99. doi:10.2165/00003495-199142020-00008. PMID 1717225.

[78] Brocks DR, Jamali F (April 1994). "Etodolac clinical pharmacokinetics". Clinical pharmacokinetics. 26 (4): 259–74. doi:10.2165/00003088-199426040-00003. PMID 8013160.

[79] Takemoto JK, Reynolds JK, Remsberg CM, Vega-Villa KR, Davies NM (2008). "Clinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of etoricoxib". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 47 (11): 703–20. doi:10.2165/00003088-200847110-00002. PMID 18840026.

[80] Bannwarth B, Bérenbaum F (July 2007). "Lumiracoxib in the management of osteoarthritis and acute pain". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 8 (10): 1551–64. doi:10.1517/14656566.8.10.1551. PMID 17661736.

[81] Davies NM, Skjodt NM (February 1999). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of meloxicam. A cyclo-oxygenase-2 preferential nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 36 (2): 115–26. doi:10.2165/00003088-199936020-00003. PMID 10092958.

[82] "PRODUCT INFORMATION DYNASTAT parecoxib (as sodium)" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Pfizer Australia Pty Ltd. 6 February 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

[83] Scott LJ, Lamb HM (September 1999). "Rofecoxib". Drugs. 58 (3): 499–505; discussion 506–7. doi:10.2165/00003495-199958030-00016. PMID 10493277.

[84] Hillson JL, Furst DE (July 2000). "Rofecoxib". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 1 (5): 1053–66. doi:10.1517/14656566.1.5.1053. PMID 11249495.

[85] Ormrod D, Wellington K, Wagstaff AJ (2002). "Valdecoxib". Drugs. 62 (14): 2059–71; discussion 2072–3. doi:10.2165/00003495-200262140-00005. PMID 12269850.

[86] "Buprenex, Subutex (buprenorphine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[87] "PRODUCT INFORMATION ACTACODE" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Aspen Pharma Pty Ltd. 19 September 2006. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[88] "Zohydro ER (hydrocodone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[89] "Dilaudid, Dilaudid HP (hydromorphone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[90] "Roxicodone, OxyContin (oxycodone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[91] "Opana, Opana ER (oxymorphone) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[92] "Stadol (butorphanol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[supp07-93] Prommer E (March 2007). "Levorphanol: the forgotten opioid.". Supportive Care in Cancer. 15 (3): 259–64. doi:10.1007/s00520-006-0146-2. PMID 17039381.

[94] "Levo Dromoran (levorphanol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[95] "Nubain (nalbuphine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[96] Errick JK, Heel RC (September 1983). "Nalbuphine. A preliminary review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 26 (3): 191–211. doi:10.2165/00003495-198326030-00002. PMID 6137354.

[97] Brogden RN, Speight TM, Avery GS (1973). "Pentazocine: a review of its pharmacological properties, therapeutic efficacy and dependence liability". Drugs. 5 (1): 6–91. doi:10.2165/00003495-197305010-00002. PMID 4578369.

[98] "Talwin (pentazocine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[99] Anderson P, Arnér S, Bondesson U, Boréus LO, Hartvig P (1982). "Single-dose kinetics and bioavailability of ketobemidone". Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum. 74: 59–62. PMID 6124079.

[100] "Demerol, Pethidine (meperidine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[101] Shipton E (March 2006). "Should New Zealand continue signing up to the Pethidine Protocol?" (PDF). The New Zealand Medical Journal. 119 (1230): U1875. PMID 16532042. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 8, 2014.

[102] Latta KS, Ginsberg B, Barkin RL (January–February 2002). "Meperidine: a critical review". American Journal of Therapeutics. 9 (1): 53–68. doi:10.1097/00045391-200201000-00010. PMID 11782820.

[103] MacPherson, RD; Duguid, MD (2008). "Strategy to Eliminate Pethidine Use in Hospitals" (PDF). Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research. 38 (2): 88–89.

[104] Mather LE, Meffin PJ (September–October 1978). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of pethidine". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 3 (5): 352–68. doi:10.2165/00003088-197803050-00002. PMID 359212.

[105] "Dipipanone 10mg + Cyclizine 30mg Tablets – Summary of Product Characteristics". 22 August 2012. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[106] Holmes B, Ward A (October 1985). "Meptazinol. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy". Drugs. 30 (4): 285–312. doi:10.2165/00003495-198530040-00001. PMID 2998723.

[107] Lugo RA, Satterfield KL, Kern SE (2005). "Pharmacokinetics of methadone". Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 19 (4): 13–24. doi:10.1080/J354v19n04_05. PMID 16431829.

[108] "Marinol (dronabinol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[109] "Cymbalta (duloxetine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[110] Szelenyi I (March 2013). "Flupirtine, a re-discovered drug, revisited.". Inflammation Research. 62 (3): 251–8. doi:10.1007/s00011-013-0592-5. PMID 23322112.

[111] Devulder J (October 2010). "Flupirtine in pain management: pharmacological properties and clinical use.". CNS Drugs. 24 (10): 867–81. doi:10.2165/11536230-000000000-00000. PMID 20839897.

[112] "Savella (milnacipran) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[113] Evans MS, Lysakowski C, Tramèr MR (November 2008). "Nefopam for the prevention of postoperative pain: quantitative systematic review" (PDF). British Journal of Anaesthesia. 101 (5): 610–7. doi:10.1093/bja/aen267. PMID 18796441.

[114] "Tylenol, Tylenol Infants' Drops (acetaminophen) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[115] McKeage K, Keam SJ (2009). "Pregabalin: in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia". Drugs & Aging. 26 (10): 883–92. doi:10.2165/11203750-000000000-00000. PMID 19761281.

[ZMSR-116] "Prialt (ziconotide) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 8 April 2014.

[117] Harper,D. (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary: Analgesia". Retrieved December 3, 2012.

[FOOTNOTEEB1878-118] EB (1878).

[FOOTNOTEEB1911-119] EB (1911).

v t e Pharmacology: major drug groups

Gastrointestinal tract/ metabolism (A)	stomach acid Antacids H₂ antagonists Proton pump inhibitors Antiemetics Laxatives Antidiarrhoeals/Antipropulsives Anti-obesity drugs Anti-diabetics Vitamins Dietary minerals

Blood and blood forming organs (B)	Antithrombotics Antiplatelets Anticoagulants Thrombolytics/fibrinolytics Antihemorrhagics Platelets Coagulants Antifibrinolytics

Cardiovascular system (C)	cardiac therapy/antianginals Cardiac glycosides Antiarrhythmics Cardiac stimulants Antihypertensives Diuretics Vasodilators Beta blockers Calcium channel blockers renin-angiotensin system ACE inhibitors Angiotensin II receptor antagonists Renin inhibitors Antihyperlipidemics Statins Fibrates Bile acid sequestrants

Skin (D)	Emollients Cicatrizants Antipruritics Antipsoriatics Medicated dressings

Genitourinary system (G)	Hormonal contraception Fertility agents SERMs Sex hormones

Endocrine system (H)	Hypothalamic-pituitary hormones Corticosteroids Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids Sex hormones Thyroid hormones/Antithyroid agents

Infections and infestations (J, P, QI)	Antimicrobials: Antibacterials (Antimycobacterials) Antifungals Antivirals Antiparasitics Antiprotozoals Anthelmintics Ectoparasiticides IVIG Vaccines

Malignant disease (L01-L02)	Anticancer agents Antimetabolites Alkylating Spindle poisons Antineoplastic Topoisomerase inhibitors

Immune disease (L03-L04)	Immunomodulators Immunostimulants Immunosuppressants

Muscles, bones, and joints (M)	Anabolic steroids Anti-inflammatories NSAIDs Antirheumatics Corticosteroids Muscle relaxants Bisphosphonates

Brain and nervous system (N)	Analgesics Anesthetics General Local Anorectics Anti-ADHD Agents Antiaddictives Anticonvulsants Antidementia Agents Antidepressants Antimigraine Agents Antiparkinson's Agents Antipsychotics Anxiolytics Depressants Entactogens Entheogens Euphoriants Hallucinogens Psychedelics Dissociatives Deliriants Hypnotics/Sedatives Mood Stabilizers Neuroprotectives Nootropics Neurotoxins Orexigenics Serenics Stimulants Wakefulness-Promoting Agents

Respiratory system (R)	Decongestants Bronchodilators Cough medicines H₁ antagonists

Sensory organs (S)	Ophthalmologicals Otologicals

Other ATC (V)	Antidotes Contrast media Radiopharmaceuticals Dressings

匿名

検索

案内