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Osmium (from Greek osme (ὀσμή) meaning "smell") is a chemical element with symbol Os and atomic number 76. It is a hard, brittle, bluish-white transition metal in the platinum group that is found as a trace element in alloys, mostly in platinum ores. Osmium is the densest naturally occurring element, with a density of 7004225900000000000♠22.59 g/cm³. Its alloys with platinum, iridium, and other platinum group metals are employed in fountain pen nibs, electrical contacts, and other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed.^[3]

Characteristics

Physical properties

Osmium, remelted pellet

Osmium has a blue-gray tint and is the densest stable element, slightly denser than iridium.^[4] Calculations of density from the X-ray diffraction data may produce the most reliable data for these elements, giving a value of 7004225620000000000♠22.562±0.009 g/cm³ for iridium versus 7004225870000000000♠22.587±0.009 g/cm³ for osmium.^[5]

Osmium is a hard but brittle metal that remains lustrous even at high temperatures. It has a very low compressibility. Correspondingly, its bulk modulus is extremely high, reported between 7002395000000000000♠395 and 7011462000000000000♠462 GPa, which rivals that of diamond (7011443000000000000♠443 GPa). The hardness of osmium is moderately high at 7009400000000000000♠4 GPa.^[6]^[7]^[8] Because of its hardness, brittleness, low vapor pressure (the lowest of the platinum group metals), and very high melting point (the fourth highest of all elements), solid osmium is difficult to machine, form, or work.

Chemical properties

Oxidation states of osmium
−2	Na 2[Os(CO) 4]
−1	Na 2[Os 4(CO) 13]
0	Os 3(CO) 12
+1	OsI
+2	OsI 2
+3	OsBr 3
+4	OsO 2, OsCl 4
+5	OsF 5
+6	OsF 6
+7	OsOF 5
+8	OsO 4, Os(NCH₃) 4

Osmium forms compounds with oxidation states ranging from −2 to +8. The most common oxidation states are +2, +3, +4, and +8. The +8 oxidation state is notable for being the highest attained by any chemical element aside from iridium's +9,^[9] and is encountered only in xenon,^[10]^[11] ruthenium,^[12] hassium,^[13] iridium,^[14] plutonium,^[15] and curium (uncertain).^[16] The oxidation states −1 and −2 represented by the two reactive compounds Na
2[Os
4(CO)
13] and Na
2[Os(CO)
4] are used in the synthesis of osmium cluster compounds.^[17]^[18]

The most common compound exhibiting the +8 oxidation state is osmium tetroxide. This toxic compound is formed when powdered osmium is exposed to air, and is a very volatile, water-soluble, pale yellow, crystalline solid with a strong smell. Osmium powder has the characteristic smell of osmium tetroxide.^[19] Osmium tetroxide forms red osmates OsO
4(OH)2−
2 upon reaction with a base. With ammonia, it forms the nitrido-osmates OsO
3N−
.^[20]^[21]^[22] Osmium tetroxide boils at 130 °C and is a powerful oxidizing agent. By contrast, osmium dioxide (OsO₂) is black, non-volatile, and much less reactive and toxic.

Only two osmium compounds have major applications: osmium tetroxide for staining tissue in electron microscopy and for the oxidation of alkenes in organic synthesis, and the non-volatile osmates for organic oxidation reactions.^[23]

Osmium pentafluoride (OsF₅) is known, but osmium trifluoride (OsF₃) has not yet been synthesized. The lower oxidation states are stabilized by the larger halogens, so that the trichloride, tribromide, triiodide, and even diiodide are known. The oxidation state +1 is known only for osmium iodide (OsI), whereas several carbonyl complexes of osmium, such as triosmium dodecacarbonyl (Os
3(CO)
12), represent oxidation state 0.^[20]^[21]^[24]^[25]

In general, the lower oxidation states of osmium are stabilized by ligands that are good σ-donors (such as amines) and π-acceptors (heterocycles containing nitrogen). The higher oxidation states are stabilized by strong σ- and π-donors, such as O2−
and N3−
.^[26]

Despite its broad range of compounds in numerous oxidation states, osmium in bulk form at ordinary temperatures and pressures resists attack by all acids and alkalis, and even aqua regia.

Isotopes

Osmium has seven naturally occurring isotopes, six of which are stable: 184
Os, 187
Os, 188
Os, 189
Os, 190
Os, and (most abundant) 192
Os. 186
Os undergoes alpha decay with such a long half-life ((2.0±1.1)×10¹⁵ years) that for practical purposes it can be considered stable. Alpha decay is predicted for all seven naturally occurring isotopes, but it has been observed only for 186
Os, presumably due to very long half-lives. It is predicted that 184
Os and 192
Os can undergo double beta decay but this radioactivity has not been observed yet.^[27]

187
Os is the daughter of 187
Re (half-life 7018143902655999999♠4.56×10¹⁰ years) and is used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks (see rhenium-osmium dating). It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons. This decay is a reason why rhenium-rich minerals are abnormally rich in 187
Os.^[28] However, the most notable application of Os isotopes in geology has been in conjunction with the abundance of iridium, to characterise the layer of shocked quartz along the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.^[29]

History

Osmium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston in London, England.^[30] The discovery of osmium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. Platinum reached Europe as platina ("small silver"), first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around the Chocó Department, in Colombia.^[31] The discovery that this metal was not an alloy, but a distinct new element, was published in 1748.^[32] Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue.^[33] Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite.^[33] Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough material for further experiments.^[33]

In 1803, Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids^[34] and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word πτηνος (ptènos) for winged.^[35]^[36] However, Tennant, who had the advantage of a much larger amount of residue, continued his research and identified two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium.^[33]^[34] He obtained a yellow solution (probably of cis–[Os(OH)₂O₄]²⁻) by reactions with sodium hydroxide at red heat. After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO₄.^[35] He named it osmium after Greek osme meaning "a smell", because of the ashy and smoky smell of the volatile osmium tetroxide.^[37] Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.^[33]^[38]

Uranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process, the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia, giving enough yield to make the process economically successful. At the time, a group at BASF led by Carl Bosch bought most of the world's supply of osmium to use as a catalyst. Shortly thereafter, in 1908, cheaper catalysts based on iron and iron oxides were introduced by the same group for the first pilot plants, removing the need for the expensive and rare osmium.^[39]

Nowadays osmium is obtained primarily from the processing of platinum and nickel ores.^[40]

Occurrence

Native platinum containing traces of the other platinum group metals

Osmium is the least abundant stable element in Earth's crust with an average mass fraction of 50 parts per trillion in the continental crust.^[41]

Osmium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (osmium rich), and iridosmium (iridium rich).^[34] In nickel and copper deposits, the platinum group metals occur as sulfides (i.e., (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (e.g., PtBiTe), antimonides (e.g., PdSb), and arsenides (e.g., PtAs₂); in all these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, osmium can be found naturally in alloys with nickel or copper.^[42]

Within Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa,^[43] though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States.^[43] The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains, Russia, which is still mined.^[40]^[44]

Production

Osmium crystals, grown by chemical vapor transport.

Osmium is obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold and the platinum group metals, together with non-metallic elements such as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud, which forms the starting material for their extraction.^[45]^[46] In order to separate the metals, they must first be brought into solution. Several methods are available depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid.^[43]^[47] Osmium, ruthenium, rhodium and iridium can be separated from platinum, gold and base metals by their insolubility in aqua regia, leaving a solid residue. Rhodium can be separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate. The insoluble residue, containing Ru, Os and Ir, is treated with sodium oxide, in which Ir is insoluble, producing water-soluble Ru and Os salts. After oxidation to the volatile oxides, RuO
4 is separated from OsO
4 by precipitation of (NH₄)₃RuCl₆ with ammonium chloride.

After it is dissolved, osmium is separated from the other platinum group metals by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide.^[48] The first method is similar to the procedure used by Tennant and Wollaston. Both methods are suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques.^[49]

Neither the producers nor the United States Geological Survey published any production amounts for osmium. Estimations of the United States consumption date published from 1971,^[50] which gives a consumption in the United States of 2000 troy ounces (62 kg), would suggest that the production is still less than 1 ton per year. In 2012, the estimated US production of osmium was 75 kg.^[51]

Applications

Because of the volatility and extreme toxicity of its oxide, osmium is rarely used in its pure state, and is instead often alloyed with other metals. Those alloys are utilized in high-wear applications. Osmium alloys such as osmiridium are very hard and, along with other platinum group metals, are used in the tips of fountain pens, instrument pivots, and electrical contacts, as they can resist wear from frequent operation. They were also used for the tips of phonograph styli during the late 78 rpm and early "LP" and "45" record era, circa 1945 to 1955. Although very durable compared to steel and chromium needle points, osmium alloy tips wore out far more rapidly than competing but costlier sapphire and diamond tips and were discontinued.^[52]

Osmium tetroxide has been used in fingerprint detection^[53] and in staining fatty tissue for optical and electron microscopy. As a strong oxidant, it cross-links lipids mainly by reacting with unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds, and thereby both fixes biological membranes in place in tissue samples and simultaneously stains them. Because osmium atoms are extremely electron dense, osmium staining greatly enhances image contrast in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies of biological materials. Those carbon materials have otherwise very weak TEM contrast (see image).^[23] Another osmium compound, osmium ferricyanide (OsFeCN), exhibits similar fixing and staining action.^[54]

The tetroxide and a related compound, potassium osmate, are important oxidants for chemical synthesis, despite being very poisonous. For the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, which uses osmate for the conversion of a double bond into a vicinal diol, Karl Barry Sharpless won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001.^[55]^[56] Apparently, OsO₄ is very expensive for this use, so KMnO₄ is often used instead, even though the yields are less for this cheaper chemical reagent.^[57]

In 1898 an Austrian chemist, Auer von Welsbach, developed the Oslamp with a filament made of osmium, which he introduced commercially in 1902. After only a few years, osmium was replaced by the more stable metal tungsten. Tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal, and using it in light bulbs increases the luminous efficacy and life of incandescent lamps.^[35]

The light bulb manufacturer Osram (founded in 1906 when three German companies, Auer-Gesellschaft, AEG and Siemens & Halske, combined their lamp production facilities) derived its name from the elements of osmium and Wolfram (the latter is German for tungsten).^[58]

Like palladium, powdered osmium effectively absorbs hydrogen atoms. This could make osmium a potential candidate for a metal hydride battery electrode. However, osmium is expensive and would react with potassium hydroxide, the most common battery electrolyte.^[59]

Osmium has high reflectivity in the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum; for example, at 600 Å osmium has a reflectivity twice that of gold.^[60] This high reflectivity is desirable in space-based UV spectrometers which have reduced mirror sizes due to space limitations. Osmium-coated mirrors were flown in several space missions aboard the Space Shuttle, but it soon became clear that the oxygen radicals in the low earth orbit are abundant enough to significantly deteriorate the osmium layer.^[61]

The only known clinical use of osmium appears to be for synovectomy in arthritic patients in Scandinavia.^[62] It involves the local administration of osmium tetroxide (OsO₄) which is a highly toxic compound. The lack of reports of long-term side effects suggest that osmium itself can be biocompatible, although this depends on the osmium compound administered. In 2011, osmium(VI)^[63] and osmium(II) ^[64] compounds were reported to show anticancer activity in vivo, it indicated a promising future for using osmium compounds as anticancer drugs.^[65]

Electron micrograph of (organic) plant tissue without (top) and with (bottom) OsO₄ staining
The Sharpless dihydroxylation:
R_L=Largest substituent; R_M=Medium-sized substituent; R_S=Smallest substituent
Post-flight appearance of Os, Ag, and Au mirrors from the front (left images) and rear panels of Space Shuttle. Blackening reveals oxidation due to irradiation by oxygen atoms.^[66]^[67]

Precautions

Finely divided metallic osmium is pyrophoric^[50] and reacts with oxygen at room temperature forming volatile osmium tetroxide. Some osmium compounds are also converted to the tetroxide if oxygen is present.^[50] This makes osmium tetroxide the main source of contact with the environment.

Osmium tetroxide is highly volatile and penetrates skin readily, and is very toxic by inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact.^[68] Airborne low concentrations of osmium tetroxide vapor can cause lung congestion and skin or eye damage, and should therefore be used in a fume hood.^[19] Osmium tetroxide is rapidly reduced to relatively inert compounds by polyunsaturated vegetable oils, such as corn oil.^[69]

Price

Osmium is usually sold as a minimum 99.9% pure powder. Like other precious metals, it is measured by troy weight and by grams. Its price in 2012 was about $400 per troy ounce (or about $13,000 per kilogram), depending on the quantity and its supplier.^[70]^[71]

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^ Gull, T. R.; Herzig, H; Osantowski, JF; Toft, AR (1985). "Low earth orbit environmental effects on osmium and related optical thin-film coatings". Applied Optics 24 (16): 2660. Bibcode:1985ApOpt..24.2660G. doi:10.1364/AO.24.002660. PMID 18223936.
^ Sheppeard, H.; D. J. Ward (1980). "Intra-articular osmic acid in rheumatoid arthritis: five years' experience". Rheumatology 19 (1): 25–29. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/19.1.25. PMID 7361025.
^ Lau, T.-C; W.-X. Ni; W.-L. Man; M. T.-W. Cheung; et al. (2011). "Osmium(vi) complexes as a new class of potential anti-cancer agents". Chem. Commun 47 (7): 2140–2142. doi:10.1039/C0CC04515B.
^ Sadler, Peter; Steve D. Shnyder; Ying Fu; Abraha Habtemariam; et al. (2011). "Anti-colorectal cancer activity of an organometallic osmium arene azopyridine complex". Med. Chem. Commun 2 (7): 666–668. doi:10.1039/C1MD00075F.
^ Fu, Ying; Romero, María J.; Habtemariam, Abraha; et al. (2012). "The contrasting chemical reactivity of potent isoelectronic iminopyridine and azopyridine osmium(II) arene anticancer complexes". Chemical Science 3 (8): 2485–2494. doi:10.1039/C2SC20220D.
^ "Second LDEF post-retrieval symposium interim results of experiment A0034" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ Linton, Roger C.; Kamenetzky, Rachel R.; Reynolds, John M.; Burris, Charles L. (1992). "LDEF experiment A0034: Atomic oxygen stimulated outgassing". In NASA. Langley Research Center (NASA): 763. Bibcode:1992ldef.symp..763L.
^ Luttrell, William E.; Giles, Cory B. (2007). "Toxic tips: Osmium tetroxide". Journal of Chemical Health and Safety 14 (5): 40–41. doi:10.1016/j.jchas.2007.07.003.
^ "How to Handle Osmium Tetroxide". University of California, San Diego. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
^ Osmium. Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division
^ Live Osmium prices. TaxFreeGold.com. Accessed 6 April 2010

External links

Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Osmium
Osmium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
FLEGENHEIMER, J. (2014). The mystery of the disappearing isotope. Revista Virtual de Química. V. XX. Available at http://www.uff.br/RVQ/index.php/rvq/article/viewFile/660/450

UpToDate Contents

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Human pathology in NCL.

Anderson GW, Goebel HH, Simonati A.SourceDepartment of Histopathology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, WC1N 3JH, UK. Electronic address: glenn.anderson@gosh.nhs.uk.
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In childhood the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCL) are the most frequent lysosomal diseases and the most frequent neurodegenerative diseases but, in adulthood, they represent a small fraction among the neurodegenerative diseases. Their morphology is marked by: (i) loss of neurons, foremost in the
PMID 23200925

Clinical, Electrophysiological, Imaging, and Ultrastructural Description in 68 Patients With Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses (NCL) and its Subtypes.

Jadav RH, Sinha S, Yasha TC, Aravinda H, Gayathri N, Rao S, Bindu PS, Satishchandra P.SourceDepartment of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India.
Pediatric neurology.Pediatr Neurol.2013 Oct 10. pii: S0887-8994(13)00497-9. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2013.08.008. [Epub ahead of print]
PURPOSE: We evaluated the clinical, electrophysiological, imaging, and ultrastructural features of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses and its subtypes.METHODS: The clinical, electrophysiological, imaging, histopathological, and ultrastructural features of 68 (age at onset: 4.3 ± 5.4 years) neuronal
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Review: cerebral amyloid angiopathy, prion angiopathy, CADASIL and the spectrum of protein elimination failure angiopathies (PEFA) in neurodegenerative disease with a focus on therapy.

Carare RO, Hawkes CA, Jeffrey M, Kalaria RN, Weller RO.SourceClinical Neurosciences and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
Neuropathology and applied neurobiology.Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol.2013 Oct;39(6):593-611. doi: 10.1111/nan.12042.
Failure of elimination of proteins from the brain is a major feature in many neurodegenerative diseases. Insoluble proteins accumulate in brain parenchyma and in walls of cerebral capillaries and arteries. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a descriptive term for amyloid in vessel walls. Here, we
PMID 23489283

Japanese Journal

An Autopsy Case of Fabry's Disease with Cardiac Manifestations

SUZUKI Osamu,ABE Masafumi
Journal of clinical and experimental hematopathology 49(2), 121-123, 2009-11-01
… Electron microscopic examination of rectal biopsy specimens revealed lamellar bodies and osmiophilic irregular bodies. …
NAID 10026387742

CADASIL

植田光晴,中熊るみ,安東由喜雄
臨床病理 57(3), 242-251, 2009-03-25
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Neuronal Ceroid-lipofuscinosis in a Japanese Domestic Shorthair Cat

KUWAMURA Mitsuru,NAKAGAWA Masanori,NABE Mikoto,YAMATE Jyoji,INOUE Michito,SATOH Hiroyuki,YAMATO Osamu
日本獣醫學会会誌 71(5), 665-667, 2009
… Ultrastructurally, the neuronal storage consisted of aggregates of dense materials, similar to the granular osmiophilic deposits in infantile ceroid-lipofuscinosis in humans. … To our knowledge this case is the sixth case of feline ceroid-lipofuscinosis, which is characterized by granular osmiophilic dense bodies in the neurons and prominent involvement of hepatocytes.<br> …
NAID 130000134382

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拡張検索	「osmiophilic lamellar inclusion body」

「osmiophilic lamellar inclusion body」

Osmium, ₇₆Os
General properties
Name, symbol	osmium, Os
Appearance	silvery, blue cast
Pronunciation	/ˈɒzmiəm/; OZ-mee-əm
Osmium in the periodic table
	rhenium ← osmium → iridium
Atomic number	76
Standard atomic weight (±) (Ar)	190.23(3)
Element category	transition metal
Group, block	group 8, d-block
Period	period 6
Electron configuration	[Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2
per shell	2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Melting point	3306 K (3033 °C, 5491 °F)
Boiling point	5285 K (5012 °C, 9054 °F)
Density near r.t.	22.59 g/cm3
when liquid, at m.p.	20 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	57.85 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	378 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	24.7 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, −4 (a mildly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 2.2
Ionization energies	1st: 840 kJ/mol; 2nd: 1600 kJ/mol
Atomic radius	empirical: 135 pm
Covalent radius	144±4 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
Speed of sound thin rod	4940 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	5.1 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity	87.6 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity	81.2 nΩ·m (at 0 °C)
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic
Shear modulus	222 GPa
Bulk modulus	462 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.25
Mohs hardness	7.0
Brinell hardness	3490–4000 MPa
CAS Registry Number	7440-04-2
History
Discovery and first isolation	Smithson Tennant (1803)
Most stable isotopes
	Main article: Isotopes of osmium
	Decay modes in parentheses are predicted, but have not yet been observed
	view; talk; edit; · references

　　[★] オスミウム酸好性層状封入体

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[61] Gull, T. R.; Herzig, H; Osantowski, JF; Toft, AR (1985). "Low earth orbit environmental effects on osmium and related optical thin-film coatings". Applied Optics 24 (16): 2660. Bibcode:1985ApOpt..24.2660G. doi:10.1364/AO.24.002660. PMID 18223936.

[62] Sheppeard, H.; D. J. Ward (1980). "Intra-articular osmic acid in rheumatoid arthritis: five years' experience". Rheumatology 19 (1): 25–29. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/19.1.25. PMID 7361025.

[63] Lau, T.-C; W.-X. Ni; W.-L. Man; M. T.-W. Cheung; et al. (2011). "Osmium(vi) complexes as a new class of potential anti-cancer agents". Chem. Commun 47 (7): 2140–2142. doi:10.1039/C0CC04515B.

[64] Sadler, Peter; Steve D. Shnyder; Ying Fu; Abraha Habtemariam; et al. (2011). "Anti-colorectal cancer activity of an organometallic osmium arene azopyridine complex". Med. Chem. Commun 2 (7): 666–668. doi:10.1039/C1MD00075F.

[65] Fu, Ying; Romero, María J.; Habtemariam, Abraha; et al. (2012). "The contrasting chemical reactivity of potent isoelectronic iminopyridine and azopyridine osmium(II) arene anticancer complexes". Chemical Science 3 (8): 2485–2494. doi:10.1039/C2SC20220D.

[66] "Second LDEF post-retrieval symposium interim results of experiment A0034" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[67] Linton, Roger C.; Kamenetzky, Rachel R.; Reynolds, John M.; Burris, Charles L. (1992). "LDEF experiment A0034: Atomic oxygen stimulated outgassing". In NASA. Langley Research Center (NASA): 763. Bibcode:1992ldef.symp..763L.

[ToxOs-68] Luttrell, William E.; Giles, Cory B. (2007). "Toxic tips: Osmium tetroxide". Journal of Chemical Health and Safety 14 (5): 40–41. doi:10.1016/j.jchas.2007.07.003.

[69] "How to Handle Osmium Tetroxide". University of California, San Diego. Retrieved 2009-06-02.

[70] Osmium. Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division

[71] Live Osmium prices. TaxFreeGold.com. Accessed 6 April 2010

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osmiophilic