関: Nb

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a soft grey ductile metallic element used in alloys; occurs in niobite; formerly called columbium (同)Nb, atomic number 41

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ニオビウム(金属元素;化学記号は『Nb』)
niobiumの化学記号

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出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2018/09/29 19:48:11」(JST)

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ニオブ（英: niobium [naɪˈoʊbiəm] 独: Niob [niˈoːp, ˈniːɔp]）は原子番号41の元素。元素記号は Nb。バナジウム族元素の1つ。

概要

銀白色の軟らかい金属（遷移金属）。常温、常圧で安定な結晶構造は体心立方格子構造 (BCC) で、比重は8.56、融点は2415 °C（異なる実験値あり）、沸点は2900 °C（4758 °Cという実験値あり）。空気中で表面が不動態となる。耐食性、耐酸性があるが、酸化力のある酸やフッ化水素酸には可溶。水酸化カリウムに微溶。原子価は2価から5価までをとる。単体金属としては最高の絶対温度9.2 K（常圧下）で超伝導転移を起こす。

コルンブ石 (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)₂O₆、パイロクロア鉱石にタンタルと共に含まれる。資源としては埋蔵・産出とも世界の90%以上をブラジルが占めている。日本名はドイツ語に由来。

タンタルに化学的性質がよく似ていて、鉱物中の結晶構造上でも共存している。金属としては、より軟らかく展性・延性に富み、加工し易い。

用途

鉄鋼添加剤としての用途が9割と大部分を占めているが、光学、電気、電子分野でも重要である。

鉄鋼添加剤: フェロニオブとして添加される。自動車や石油パイプライン用の高張力鋼、海水に対する耐蝕性を高めたステンレス鋼、発電所や戦闘機エンジンのタービン用耐熱超合金など; 鋼中のニオブが炭素を安定化し粒間腐食を防止する。これにより鋼材の微小構造が保たれ、耐蝕性、耐熱性、耐衝撃性を高める効果を発揮すると考えられている。
超硬工具: 炭化ニオブを焼結したものが切削工具材（サーメットなど）に利用されている。
スパッタリングターゲット材: スズまたはチタンとの合金、高純度酸化物などが利用されている。
高屈折率レンズ: 五酸化ニオブとして、光学ガラスの添加剤（鉛フリーの代替材としても検討されているが、価格が20倍）。
光学薄膜: 主に蒸着やスパッタリングによって形成される。自動車・建築資材用ガラスやディスプレイ装置用の低反射膜、光学ディスク装置用ミラーの多層膜。
光触媒: 酸化ニオブ（ニオビア、niobia）やニオブ酸塩に見られ、層状酸化物から得られるナノシートを利用した触媒や吸着機能の研究が進められている。これを利用した防汚ガラスがJR西日本により開発され、新幹線への導入が計画されている。
超伝導磁石: Nb₃Ti、Nb₃Sn などの金属間化合物として、MRI装置で普及しているほか、リニアモーターカーや核融合炉、粒子加速器などへの利用が予想されている。セラミック系の高温超伝導物質を除けば、比較的高い超伝導転移温度を持ち、金属として加工しやすいことから実用化が進んだが、転移温度が10-20 Kと低いため、長期的には新素材へ移行するものと見られる。
圧電素子: ニオブ酸リチウム（ナトリウム、カリウム塩も同様）の単結晶が強誘電体であることから、高周波発生装置、光変調素子（レーザー光の波長を変える）、表面弾性波フィルター（携帯電話などのノイズフィルタ）など。
熱電素子: チタン酸ストロンチウムにニオブを添加し、極薄導電体を挟み込んで熱電素子を作ると、温度差1 °Cに付き800 µVの起電力を発揮する。730 °C前後のエンジン/燃料電池排気の熱エネルギーを電気エネルギーとして回収できると期待されている^[1]。
コンデンサ: 金属粉末を焼結するなどした酸化物による、ニオブコンデンサ（電解コンデンサとセラミックコンデンサ）の誘電体。; タンタルによる小型コンデンサが、携帯電話などの小型電子製品に不可欠となっている。埋蔵量が多く（タンタルの100倍とも）安定供給されているニオブを、その代替とする研究がすすめられてきた。
放射化学: 天然安定同位体が1種しかないことから、人工同位体を作る材料として。
その他: 高圧ナトリウムランプの電極部、垂直磁気記録方式の磁性体、ジョセフソン素子

主な産出国

ブラジル：特にミナスジェライス州のアラシャ (Araxá) 鉱山だけで総産出量の8割を担っている。
- ブラジルのパイロクロア鉱石は露天掘りされる上に品位が高く、採掘時で数%のニオブを含んでおり、選鉱すると酸化ニオブ(V)として65%程度の精鉱が得られるという（価格安定の背景）。
カナダ：ブラジルに次ぐ。両者を合わせると99%に達する。

このほか精製副産物としてタンタルの産出国などで回収されている。鉱石中のニオブとタンタルの含有比率は一定しておらず、特にコルンブ石とタンタル石は同じ構造で、どちらが多いかで名称が変わるため、コルタンと総称される。

歴史

化学的性質がタンタルと似ていたため、元素と確認されるまで紆余曲折があった。

18世紀初め、アメリカのニューイングランドでコルンブ石 (columbite) が発見。
1753年コルンブ石が大英博物館に送られ、鉱物標本に。
1801年標本を分析したチャールズ・ハチェットが未知の元素を発見し、鉱石名からコロンビウム (columbium, Cb) と命名^[2]。
1802年タンタルの発見^[2]。
1809年ウイリアム・ウォラストンによって両者は同じ元素とみなされ、タンタルに統合。
1846年ドイツのハインリヒ・ローゼにより再発見され、ギリシャ神話のタンタロスの娘ニオベー (niobe) にちなんでニオブと命名。
1864年コロンビウムがニオブだったことが確認される^[2]。
- その後、米英ではコロンビウム、日本を含む他の国ではニオブと呼ばれ、現在もアメリカではコロンビウムが使われている。
1949年 IUPACにより名称がニオブ (niobium) に統一。

製造

ニオブの主要用途である製鋼向けフェロニオブは、大部分がブラジルで精製鉱石を直接テルミット還元して生産されている。日本でも1950年代から1995年まで生産されていたが、ブラジルとカナダが鉱石の輸出を停止したため、撤退した（鉱石は日本でも産出するがコスト面から）。

一方、金属や高純度酸化物を得るための精製は主にアメリカで行われている。方法としては溶媒抽出法が利用され、主成分が五酸化ニオブである精製鉱石を有機溶剤（MIBK、メチルイソブチルケトン）で抽出し酸で逆抽出する。条件を変えてタンタルとの分離を行い、またはアルカリ融解などでニオブ酸とした後、加水分解で酸化物を得る。これを、アルミニウムテルミット還元、水素還元、電解還元などにより精製し、金属ニオブが得られる。

ニオブの化合物

炭化ニオブ (NbC)
酸化ニオブ(V) (Nb₂O₅)
塩化ニオブ(V) (NbCl₅)
ニオブ酸バリウム (BaNb₂O₆)
ニオブ酸リチウム (LiNbO₃) - 略称LN

同位体

詳細は「ニオブの同位体」を参照

出典

[ヘルプ]

^ ありふれた酸化物から巨大な熱起電力を発現する材料の開発に成功
^ ^a ^b ^c 桜井弘『元素111の新知識』講談社、1998年、203-204頁。ISBN 4-06-257192-7。

1 History
- 1.1 Naming the element
2 Characteristics
- 2.1 Physical
- 2.2 Chemical
- 2.3 Isotopes
- 2.4 Occurrence
3 Production
4 Compounds
- 4.1 Oxides and sulfides
- 4.2 Halides
- 4.3 Nitrides and carbides
5 Applications
- 5.1 Steel production
- 5.2 Superalloys
- 5.3 Niobium-based alloys
- 5.4 Superconducting magnets
  - 5.4.1 Other superconductors
- 5.5 Other uses
  - 5.5.1 Electroceramics
  - 5.5.2 Hypoallergenic applications: medicine and jewelry
  - 5.5.3 Numismatics
  - 5.5.4 Other
6 Precautions
7 References
8 External links

History

Charles Hatchett identified the element columbium within a mineral discovered in Connecticut, US.

Picture of a Hellenistic sculpture representing Niobe by Giorgio Sommer

Niobium was identified by English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801.^[3]^[4]^[5] He found a new element in a mineral sample that had been sent to England from Connecticut, United States in 1734 by John Winthrop F.R.S. (grandson of John Winthrop the Younger) and named the mineral columbite and the new element columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for the United States.^[6]^[7]^[8] The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a mixture of the new element with tantalum.^[6]

Subsequently, there was considerable confusion^[9] over the difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely related tantalum. In 1809, English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a density 5.918 g/cm³, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density over 8 g/cm³, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept the name tantalum.^[9] This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe) and pelopium (from Pelops).^[10]^[11] This confusion arose from the minimal observed differences between tantalum and niobium. The claimed new elements pelopium, ilmenium, and dianium^[12] were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum.^[13]

The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally demonstrated in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand^[13] and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as Louis J. Troost, who determined the formulas of some of the compounds in 1865^[13]^[14] and finally by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac^[15] in 1866, who all proved that there were only two elements. Articles on ilmenium continued to appear until 1871.^[16]

De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen.^[17] Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in incandescent lamp filaments, the first commercial application.^[14] This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point. That niobium improves the strength of steel was first discovered in the 1920s, and this application remains its predominant use.^[14] In 1961, the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium-tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields,^[18] making it the first material to support the high currents and fields necessary for useful high-power magnets and electrical power machinery. This discovery enabled — two decades later — the production of long multi-strand cables wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, and particle detectors.^[19]^[20]

Naming the element

Columbium (symbol "Cb")^[21] was the name originally bestowed by Hatchett upon his discovery of the metal in 1801.^[4] The name reflected that the type specimen of the ore came from America (Columbia).^[22] This name remained in use in American journals—the last paper published by American Chemical Society with columbium in its title dates from 1953^[23]—while niobium was used in Europe. To end this confusion, the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th Conference of the Union of Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949.^[24] A year later this name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after 100 years of controversy, despite the chronological precedence of the name columbium.^[24] This was a compromise of sorts;^[24] the IUPAC accepted tungsten instead of wolfram in deference to North American usage; and niobium instead of columbium in deference to European usage. While many US chemical societies and government organizations typically use the official IUPAC name, some metallurgists and metal societies still use the original American name, "columbium".^[25]^[26]^[27]

Characteristics

Physical

Niobium is a lustrous, grey, ductile, paramagnetic metal in group 5 of the periodic table (see table), with an electron configuration in the outermost shells atypical for group 5. (This can be observed in the neighborhood of ruthenium (44), rhodium (45), and palladium (46).)

Z	Element	No. of electrons/shell
23	vanadium	2, 8, 11, 2
41	niobium	2, 8, 18, 12, 1
73	tantalum	2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2
105	dubnium	2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2

Although it is thought to have a body-centered cubic crystal structure from absolute zero to its melting point, high-resolution measurements of the thermal expansion along the three crystallographic axes reveal anisotropies which are inconsistent with a cubic structure.^[28] Therefore, further research and discovery in this area is expected.

Niobium becomes a superconductor at cryogenic temperatures. At atmospheric pressure, it has the highest critical temperature of the elemental superconductors at 9.2 K.^[29] Niobium has the greatest magnetic penetration depth of any element.^[29] In addition, it is one of the three elemental Type II superconductors, along with vanadium and technetium. The superconductive properties are strongly dependent on the purity of the niobium metal.^[30]

When very pure, it is comparatively soft and ductile, but impurities make it harder.^[31]

The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons;^[32] thus it is used in the nuclear industries where neutron transparent structures are desired.^[33]

Chemical

The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods.^[34] Despite a high melting point in elemental form (2,468 °C), it has a lower density than other refractory metals. Furthermore, it is corrosion-resistant, exhibits superconductivity properties, and forms dielectric oxide layers.

Niobium is slightly less electropositive and more compact than its predecessor in the periodic table, zirconium, whereas it is virtually identical in size to the heavier tantalum atoms, as a result of the lanthanide contraction.^[31] As a result, niobium's chemical properties are very similar to those for tantalum, which appears directly below niobium in the periodic table.^[14] Although its corrosion resistance is not as outstanding as that of tantalum, the lower price and greater availability make niobium attractive for less demanding applications, such as vat linings in chemical plants.^[31]

Isotopes

Niobium in the Earth's crust comprises one stable isotope, ⁹³Nb.^[35] By 2003, at least 32 radioisotopes had been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113. The most stable of these is ⁹²Nb with a half-life of 34.7 million years. One of the least stable is ¹¹³Nb, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable ⁹³Nb tend to decay by β⁺ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β⁻ decay, with some exceptions. ⁸¹Nb, ⁸²Nb, and ⁸⁴Nb have minor β⁺ delayed proton emission decay paths, ⁹¹Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission, and ⁹²Nb decays by both β⁺ and β⁻ decay.^[35]

At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104. Within this range, only ⁹⁶Nb, ¹⁰¹Nb, and ¹⁰³Nb do not have isomers. The most stable of niobium's isomers is ^93mNb with a half-life of 16.13 years. The least stable isomer is ^84mNb with a half-life of 103 ns. All of niobium's isomers decay by isomeric transition or beta decay except ^92m1Nb, which has a minor electron capture branch.^[35]

Occurrence

Niobium is estimated to be the 34th most common element in the Earth’s crust, with 20 ppm.^[36] Some think that the abundance on Earth is much greater, and that the element's high density has concentrated it in the Earth’s core.^[26] The free element is not found in nature, but niobium occurs in combination with other elements in minerals.^[31] Minerals that contain niobium often also contain tantalum. Examples include columbite ((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)₂O₆) and columbite–tantalite (or coltan, (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)₂O₆).^[37] Columbite–tantalite minerals are most usually found as accessory minerals in pegmatite intrusions, and in alkaline intrusive rocks. Less common are the niobates of calcium, uranium, thorium and the rare earth elements. Examples of such niobates are pyrochlore ((Na,Ca)₂Nb₂O₆(OH,F)) and euxenite ((Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)₂O₆). These large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites (carbonate-silicate igneous rocks) and as a constituent of pyrochlore.^[38]

The three largest currently mined deposits of pyrochlore, two in Brazil and one in Canada, were found in the 1950s, and are still the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates.^[14] The largest deposit is hosted within a carbonatite intrusion in Araxá, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, owned by CBMM (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração); the other active Brazilian deposit is located near Catalão, state of Goiás, and owned by China Molybdenum, also hosted within a carbonatite intrusion.^[39] Together, those two mines produce about 88% of the world's supply.^[40] Brazil also has a large but still unexploited deposit near São Gabriel da Cachoeira, state of Amazonas, as well as a few smaller deposits, notably in the state of Roraima.^[40]

The third largest producer of niobium is the carbonatite-hosted Niobec mine, in Saint-Honoré, near Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada, owned by Magris Resources.^[41] It produces between 7% and 10% of the world's supply.^[39]^[40]

Production

Niobium producers in 2006 to 2015

After the separation from the other minerals, the mixed oxides of tantalum Ta₂O₅ and niobium Nb₂O₅ are obtained. The first step in the processing is the reaction of the oxides with hydrofluoric acid:^[37]

Ta₂O₅ + 14 HF → 2 H₂[TaF₇] + 5 H₂O

Nb₂O₅ + 10 HF → 2 H₂[NbOF₅] + 3 H₂O

The first industrial scale separation, developed by de Marignac, exploits the differing solubilities of the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides, dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate (K₂[NbOF₅]·H₂O) and dipotassium heptafluorotantalate (K₂[TaF₇]) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone.^[37] The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:^[42]

H₂[NbOF₅] + 2 KF → K₂[NbOF₅]↓ + 2 HF

Followed by:

2 H₂[NbOF₅] + 10 NH₄OH → Nb₂O₅↓ + 10 NH₄F + 7 H₂O

Several methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium. The electrolysis of a molten mixture of K₂[NbOF₅] and sodium chloride is one; the other is the reduction of the fluoride with sodium. With this method, a relatively high purity niobium can be obtained. In large scale production, Nb₂O₅ is reduced with hydrogen or carbon.^[42] In the aluminothermic reaction, a mixture of iron oxide and niobium oxide is reacted with aluminium:

3 Nb₂O₅ + Fe₂O₃ + 12 Al → 6 Nb + 2 Fe + 6 Al₂O₃

Small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added to enhance the reaction. The result is aluminium oxide and ferroniobium, an alloy of iron and niobium used in the steel production.^[43]^[44] Ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70% niobium.^[39] Without iron oxide, the aluminothermic process is used to produce niobium. Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for superconductive alloys. Electron beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major distributors of niobium.^[45]^[46]

As of 2013^[update], CBMM from Brazil controlled 85 percent of the world's niobium production.^[47] The United States Geological Survey estimates that the production increased from 38,700 tonnes in 2005 to 44,500 tonnes in 2006.^[48]^[49] Worldwide resources are estimated to be 4,400,000 tonnes.^[49] During the ten-year period between 1995 and 2005, the production more than doubled, starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995.^[50] Between 2009 and 2011, production was stable at 63,000 tonnes per year,^[51] with a slight decrease in 2012 to only 50,000 tonnes per year.^[52]

Mine production (t)^[53] (USGS estimate)
Country	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011
Australia	160	230	290	230	200	200	200	?	?	?	?	?
Brazil	30,000	22,000	26,000	29,000	29,900	35,000	40,000	57,300	58,000	58,000	58,000	58,000
Canada	2,290	3,200	3,410	3,280	3,400	3,310	4,167	3,020	4,380	4,330	4,420	4,400
Congo D.R.	?	50	50	13	52	25	?	?	?	?	?	?
Mozambique	?	?	5	34	130	34	29	?	?	?	?	?
Nigeria	35	30	30	190	170	40	35	?	?	?	?	?
Rwanda	28	120	76	22	63	63	80	?	?	?	?	?
World	32,600	25,600	29,900	32,800	34,000	38,700	44,500	60,400	62,900	62,900	62,900	63,000

Lesser amounts are found in Malawi's Kanyika Deposit (Kanyika mine).

Compounds

In many ways, niobium is similar to tantalum and zirconium. It reacts with most nonmetals at high temperatures; with fluorine at room temperature; with chlorine and hydrogen at 200 °C; and with nitrogen at 400 °C, with products that are frequently interstitial and nonstoichiometric.^[31] The metal begins to oxidize in air at 200 °C.^[42] It resists corrosion by fused alkalis and by acids, including aqua regia, hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids.^[31] Niobium is attacked by hydrofluoric acid and hydrofluoric/nitric acid mixtures.

Although niobium exhibits all of the formal oxidation states from +5 to −1, the most common compounds have niobium in the +5 state.^[31] Characteristically, compounds in oxidation states less than 5+ display Nb–Nb bonding.

Oxides and sulfides

Niobium forms oxides in the oxidation states +5 (Nb₂O₅),^[54] +4 (NbO₂), +3 (Nb
₂O
₃),^[42] and the rarer oxidation state, +2 (NbO).^[55] Most common is the pentoxide, precursor to almost all niobium compounds and alloys.^[42]^[56] Niobates are generated by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in alkali metal oxides. Examples are lithium niobate (LiNbO₃) and lanthanum niobate (LaNbO₄). In the lithium niobate is a trigonally distorted perovskite-like structure, whereas the lanthanum niobate contains lone NbO³⁻
₄ ions.^[42] The layered niobium sulfide (NbS₂) is also known.^[31]

Materials can be coated with a thin film of niobium(V) oxide chemical vapor deposition or atomic layer deposition processes, produced by the thermal decomposition of niobium(V) ethoxide above 350 °C.^[57]^[58]

Halides

A sample of niobium pentachloride (yellow portion) that has partially hydrolyzed (white material).

Ball-and-stick model of niobium pentachloride, which exists as a dimer

Niobium forms halides in the oxidation states of +5 and +4 as well as diverse substoichiometric compounds.^[42]^[45] The pentahalides (NbX
₅) feature octahedral Nb centres. Niobium pentafluoride (NbF₅) is a white solid with a melting point of 79.0 °C and niobium pentachloride (NbCl₅) is yellow (see image at left) with a melting point of 203.4 °C. Both are hydrolyzed to give oxides and oxyhalides, such as NbOCl₃. The pentachloride is a versatile reagent used to generate the organometallic compounds, such as niobocene dichloride ((C
₅H
₅)
₂NbCl
₂).^[59] The tetrahalides (NbX
₄) are dark-coloured polymers with Nb-Nb bonds; for example, the black hygroscopic niobium tetrafluoride (NbF₄) and brown niobium tetrachloride (NbCl₄).

Anionic halide compounds of niobium are well known, owing in part to the Lewis acidity of the pentahalides. The most important is [NbF₇]²⁻, an intermediate in the separation of Nb and Ta from the ores.^[37] This heptafluoride tends to form the oxopentafluoride more readily than does the tantalum compound. Other halide complexes include octahedral [NbCl₆]⁻:

Nb₂Cl₁₀ + 2 Cl⁻ → 2 [NbCl₆]⁻

As with other metals with low atomic numbers, a variety of reduced halide cluster ions is known, the prime example being [Nb₆Cl₁₈]⁴⁻.^[60]

Nitrides and carbides

Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride (NbN), which becomes a superconductor at low temperatures and is used in detectors for infrared light.^[61] The main niobium carbide is NbC, an extremely hard, refractory, ceramic material, commercially used in cutting tool bits.

Applications

A niobium foil

Out of 44,500 tonnes of niobium mined in 2006, an estimated 90% was used in high-grade structural steel. The second largest application is superalloys.^[62] Niobium alloy superconductors and electronic components account for a very small share of the world production.^[62]

Steel production

Niobium is an effective microalloying element for steel, within which it forms niobium carbide and niobium nitride.^[26] These compounds improve the grain refining, and retard recrystallization and precipitation hardening. These effects in turn increase the toughness, strength, formability, and weldability.^[26] Within microalloyed stainless steels, the niobium content is a small (less than 0.1%^[63]) but important addition to high strength low alloy steels that are widely used structurally in modern automobiles.^[26] Niobium is sometimes used in considerably higher quantities for highly wear-resistant machine components and knives, as high as 3% in Crucible CPM S110V stainless steel.^[64]

These same niobium alloys are often used in pipeline construction.^[65]^[66]

Superalloys

Apollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit with the dark rocket nozzle made from niobium-titanium alloy

Quantities of niobium are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-based superalloys in proportions as great as 6.5%^[63] for such applications as jet engine components, gas turbines, rocket subassemblies, turbo charger systems, heat resisting, and combustion equipment. Niobium precipitates a hardening γ''-phase within the grain structure of the superalloy.^[67]

One example superalloy is Inconel 718, consisting of roughly 50% nickel, 18.6% chromium, 18.5% iron, 5% niobium, 3.1% molybdenum, 0.9% titanium, and 0.4% aluminium.^[68]^[69] These superalloys were used, for example, in advanced air frame systems for the Gemini program. Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module. Because niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 °C, a protective coating is necessary for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle.^[70]

Niobium-based alloys

C-103 alloy was developed in the early 1960s jointly by the Wah Chang Corporation and Boeing Co. DuPont, Union Carbide Corp., General Electric Co. and several other companies were developing Nb-base alloys simultaneously, largely driven by the Cold War and Space Race. It is composed of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium and is used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles, such as the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules.^[70]

The nozzle of the Merlin Vacuum series of engines developed by SpaceX for the upper stage of its Falcon 9 rocket is made from a niobium alloy.^[71]

The reactivity of niobium with oxygen requires it to be worked in a vacuum or inert atmosphere, which significantly increases the cost and difficulty of production. Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) and electron beam melting (EBM), novel processes at the time, enabled the development of niobium and other reactive metals. The project that yielded C-103 began in 1959 with as many as 256 experimental niobium alloys in the "C-series" (possibly from columbium) that could be melted as buttons and rolled into sheet. Wah Chang had an inventory of hafnium, refined from nuclear-grade zirconium alloys, that it wanted to put to commercial use. The 103rd experimental composition of the C-series alloys, Nb-10Hf-1Ti, had the best combination of formability and high-temperature properties. Wah Chang fabricated the first 500-lb heat of C-103 in 1961, ingot to sheet, using EBM and VAR. The intended applications included turbine engines and liquid metal heat exchangers. Competing niobium alloys from that era included FS85 (Nb-10W-28Ta-1Zr) from Fansteel Metallurgical Corp., Cb129Y (Nb-10W-10Hf-0.2Y) from Wah Chang and Boeing, Cb752 (Nb-10W-2.5Zr) from Union Carbide, and Nb1Zr from Superior Tube Co.^[70]

Superconducting magnets

A 3-tesla clinical magnetic resonance imaging scanner using niobium superconducting alloy

Niobium-germanium (Nb
₃Ge), niobium-tin (Nb
₃Sn), as well as the niobium-titanium alloys are used as a type II superconductor wire for superconducting magnets.^[72]^[73] These superconducting magnets are used in magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance instruments as well as in particle accelerators.^[74] For example, the Large Hadron Collider uses 600 tons of superconducting strands, while the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor uses an estimated 600 tonnes of Nb₃Sn strands and 250 tonnes of NbTi strands.^[75] In 1992 alone, more than US$1 billion worth of clinical magnetic resonance imaging systems were constructed with niobium-titanium wire.^[19]

Other superconductors

A 1.3 GHz SRF made from niobium is on display at Fermilab

The superconducting radio frequency (SRF) cavities used in the free-electron lasers FLASH (result of the cancelled TESLA linear accelerator project) and XFEL are made from pure niobium.^[76] A cryomodule team at Fermilab used the same SRF technology from the FLASH project to develop 1.3 GHz nine-cell SRF cavities made from pure niobium. The cavities will be used in the 30-kilometre (19 mi) linear particle accelerator of the International Linear Collider.^[77] The same technology will be used in LCLS-II at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and PIP-II at Fermilab.^[78]

The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal detector for electromagnetic radiation in the THz frequency band. These detectors were tested at the Submillimeter Telescope, the South Pole Telescope, the Receiver Lab Telescope, and at APEX, and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel Space Observatory.^[79]

Other uses

Electroceramics

Lithium niobate, which is a ferroelectric, is used extensively in mobile telephones and optical modulators, and for the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. It belongs to the ABO₃ structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and barium titanate.^[80] Niobium capacitors are available as alternative to tantalum capacitors,^[81] but tantalum capacitors still predominate. Niobium is added to glass to obtain a higher refractive index, making possible thinner and lighter corrective glasses.

Hypoallergenic applications: medicine and jewelry

Niobium and some niobium alloys are physiologically inert and hypoallergenic. For this reason, niobium is used in prosthetics and implant devices, such as pacemakers.^[82] Niobium treated with sodium hydroxide forms a porous layer that aids osseointegration.^[83]

Like titanium, tantalum, and aluminium, niobium can be heated and anodized ("reactive metal anodization") to produce a wide array of iridescent colours for jewelry,^[84]^[85] where its hypoallergenic property is highly desirable.^[86]

Numismatics

A 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway Coin made of niobium and silver

Niobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative coins, often with silver or gold. For example, Austria produced a series of silver niobium euro coins starting in 2003; the colour in these coins is created by the diffraction of light by a thin anodized oxide layer.^[87] In 2012, ten coins are available showing a broad variety of colours in the centre of the coin: blue, green, brown, purple, violet, or yellow. Two more examples are the 2004 Austrian €25 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin,^[88] and the 2006 Austrian €25 European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin.^[89] The Austrian mint produced for Latvia a similar series of coins starting in 2004,^[90] with one following in 2007.^[91] In 2011, the Royal Canadian Mint started production of a $5 sterling silver and niobium coin named Hunter's Moon^[92] in which the niobium was selectively oxidized, thus creating unique finishes where no two coins are exactly alike.

Other

The arc-tube seals of high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium, sometimes alloyed with 1% of zirconium; niobium has a very similar coefficient of thermal expansion, matching the sintered alumina arc tube ceramic, a translucent material which resists chemical attack or reduction by the hot liquid sodium and sodium vapour contained inside the operating lamp.^[93]^[94]^[95]

Niobium is used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless steel^[96] and in anodes for cathodic protection systems on some water tanks, which are then usually plated with platinum.^[97]^[98]

Niobium is an important component of high-performance heterogeneous catalysts for the production of acrylic acid by selective oxidation of propane.^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]

Niobium is used to make the high voltage wire of the Solar Corona particles receptor module of the Parker Solar Probe ^[103]

Precautions

Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants.^[104]^[105]

Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic and should be treated with care. The short- and long-term exposure to niobates and niobium chloride, two chemicals that are water-soluble, have been tested in rats. Rats treated with a single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose (LD₅₀) between 10 and 100 mg/kg.^[106]^[107]^[108] For oral administration the toxicity is lower; a study with rats yielded a LD₅₀ after seven days of 940 mg/kg.^[106]

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External links

Los Alamos National Laboratory – Niobium
Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center
Niobium for particle accelerators eg ILC. 2005
"Columbium". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Columbium". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
Niobium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)

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「Nb」

Niobium, ₄₁Nb
General properties
Pronunciation	/naɪˈoʊbiəm/ (ny-OH-bee-əm)
Appearance	gray metallic, bluish when oxidized
Standard atomic weight (Ar, standard)	92.90637(2)
Niobium in the periodic table
	zirconium ← niobium → molybdenum
Atomic number (Z)	41
Group	group 5
Period	period 5
Element category	transition metal
Block	d-block
Electron configuration	[Kr] 4d4 5s1
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 12, 1
Physical properties
Phase at STP	solid
Melting point	2750 K (2477 °C, 4491 °F)
Boiling point	5017 K (4744 °C, 8571 °F)
Density (near r.t.)	8.57 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	30 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	689.9 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	24.60 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	5, 4, 3, 2, 1, −1, −3 (a mildly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 1.6
Ionization energies	1st: 652.1 kJ/mol ; 2nd: 1380 kJ/mol ; 3rd: 2416 kJ/mol ; ;
Atomic radius	empirical: 146 pm
Covalent radius	164±6 pm
	Spectral lines
	Spectral lines
Other properties
Crystal structure	body-centered cubic (bcc)
Speed of sound thin rod	3480 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	7.3 µm/(m·K)
Thermal conductivity	53.7 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity	152 nΩ·m (at 0 °C)
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic
Young's modulus	105 GPa
Shear modulus	38 GPa
Bulk modulus	170 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.40
Mohs hardness	6.0
Vickers hardness	870–1320 MPa
Brinell hardness	735–2450 MPa
CAS Number	7440-03-1
History
Naming	after Niobe in Greek mythology, daughter of Tantalus (tantalum)
Discovery	Charles Hatchett (1801)
First isolation	Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand (1864)
Recognized as a distinct element by	Heinrich Rose (1844)
Main isotopes of niobium
γ	–
γ	–
γ	–
γ	–
	view; talk; edit; \| references \| in Wikidata

外見
	銀白色;
一般特性
名称, 記号, 番号	ニオブ, Nb, 41
分類	遷移金属
族, 周期, ブロック	5, 5, d
原子量	92.90638
電子配置	[Kr] 4d4 5s1
電子殻	2, 8, 18, 12, 1（画像）
物理特性
相	固体
密度（室温付近）	8.57 g/cm3
融点	2750 K, 2477 °C, 4491 °F
沸点	5017 K, 4744 °C, 8571 °F
融解熱	30 kJ/mol
蒸発熱	689.9 kJ/mol
熱容量	(25 °C) 24.60 J/(mol·K)
蒸気圧
原子特性
酸化数	5, 4, 3, 2, -1（弱酸性酸化物）
電気陰性度	1.6（ポーリングの値）
イオン化エネルギー	第1： 652.1 kJ/mol
	第2： 1380 kJ/mol
	第3： 2416 kJ/mol
原子半径	146 pm
共有結合半径	164±6 pm
その他
結晶構造	体心立方
磁性	常磁性
電気抵抗率	(0 °C) 152 nΩ·m
熱伝導率	(300 K) 53.7 W/(m·K)
熱膨張率	7.3 µm/(m·K)
音の伝わる速さ; （微細ロッド）	(20 °C) 3480 m/s
ヤング率	105 GPa
剛性率	38 GPa
体積弾性率	170 GPa
ポアソン比	0.40
モース硬度	6.0
ビッカース硬度	1320 MPa
ブリネル硬度	736 MPa
CAS登録番号	7440-03-1
主な同位体
	詳細はニオブの同位体を参照
	表示

　　[★] ニオブ

関: niobium

[1] ありふれた酸化物から巨大な熱起電力を発現する材料の開発に成功

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